REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


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MODERN    CARPENTRY 

AND 

,;fr  BUILDING. 

GIVING    METHODS    OF    OBTAINING    THK    VARIOUS 

CUTS   IN   CARPENTRY. 

**  -1  | 

ALSO,    STAIR     BUILDING,     BUILDERS'     ESTIMATES,     SLIDE    RULE, 
STEEL    SQUARE,     STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS, 
MATHEMATICAL    RULES,     ETC. 

ALSO  GIVING   A  NITMKKIt  OF 

HALF-TONE   VIEWS   OF 
BEAUTIFUL  MODERN    RESIDENCES, 

TOGETHER  WITH    CONVENIENT    MODERN    FLOOR    PLANS;    ALSO, 

A    COMPLETE    SET    OF    FRAMING    PLANS,    SHOWING 

MOST    APPROVED    METHOD    OF 

.  MODERN   CONSTRUCTION. 


BY   W.   A.  SYLVESTER. 
II 


Copy right,   1896. 


ALLEN    SYLVESTER,  PUBLISHER, 
BOSTON. 


OoPTRIGHf,   1896, 

BT   W.   A.  SYLVESTER, 


INTRODUCTION 


Fourteen  years  ago  THE  MODERN  CARPENTERS'  COM- 
PANION AND  BUILDERS'  GUIDE  was  issued,  and  has  since 
met  with  a  sale  of  ten  thousand  copies ;  which,  consider- 
ing the  fact  that  it  has  been  advertised  but  very  little 
indeed,  shows  that  it  met  a  want.  Some  complaint  has 
been  made  that  the  illustrations  did  not  always  come 
opposite  the  descriptions,  and  many  have  expressed  a  de- 
sire for  a  much  larger  number  of  floor  plans  of  modern 
residences,  accompanied  by  elevations  or  perspectives  to 
show  the  general  style  of  exterior  finish  ;  others  wanted 
complete  framing  plans  and  specifications. 

For  many  reasons  it  has  been  deemed  best  to  remodel 
and  add  to  this  book,  thus  bringing  it  up  to  date,  and  meet- 
ing most  of  the  above  mentioned  requirements,  and  to 
distinguish  this  revised  book  from  the  former  one,  it  has 
been  decided  to  call  it  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING. 

Jt  must  not  be  inferred  that  this  is  a  thorough,  com- 
plete and  exhaustive  work  'on  carpentry,  dealing  with 
framing  odd  shaped  structures,  groined  arches,  and  the 
like.  There  are  a  number  of  excellent  works  of  that  kind 
already  in  the  market,  although  their  prices  are  a  little 
beyond  the  reach  of  some,  and  a  college  education  in  the 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

higher  mathematics  seems  almost  a  requisite  in  order  to 
thoroughly  master  some  of  them. 

This  book  is  intended  as  an  aid  to  the  workman  in  the 
numerous  instances  that  are  daily  or  constantly  occurring, 
either  where  some  detail  has  slipped  his  mind  in  some  of 
the  methods  of  laving  out  work,  or  suggestions  in  doing 
kinds  of  work  with  which  he  may  not  have  had  experience, 
or  in  making  up  estimates,  etc.,  etc.,  —  a  veritable  handy 
book  to  be  carried  in  his  coat  pocket  or  in  his  box  of 
tools,  ready  for  instant  reference,  not  left  at  home- 
Some  workmen  seem  to  consider  it  a  sign  of  ignorance 
for  a  man  to  buy  a  book  on  carpentry,  and  they  will  say 
with  a  sneer  that  they  did  not  learn  their  trade  from  a 
book,  (some  of  them  by  their  work  giving  ample  evidence 
that  they  never  learned  their  trade  at  all)  ;  while  doctors, 
lawyers  and  ministers,  —  college  graduates,  —  who  have  had 
special  training  to  fit  them  for  their  duties,  are  constantly 
referring  to  their  books,  the  ignorant  workman  feels- 
affronted  when  offered  a  work  treating  on  his  line  of  busi- 
ness; but  the  intelligent,  wide-awake,  up-to-date  workman 
is  always  on  the  watch  for  new  points  —  short  cuts  in 
doing  work,  and  doing  it  right  the  first  time,  and  he  had 
just  as  soon  learn  new  points  from  a  book  (if  it  is  written 
by  a  practical  workman  — one  who  knows  what  he  is  talk- 
ing about)  as  to  learn  it  through  another  man,  —  (and  per- 
haps the  other  man  may  be  a  "back  number"  and  has 
forgotten  some  of  it  himself) . 

We  have  thought  best  to  scatter  the  views  of  residences 
throughout  the  book  (possibly  some  will  not  like  this), 
and  while  some  of  the  floor  plans  in  the  back  part  of  this 
book  may  not  exactly  match  some  of  the  elevations,  they 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  v  ii 

will  give  a  very  fair  idea  from  which  such  additions  or 
alterations  can  be  made  as  customers  or  builders  may  de- 
sire,— they  are  offered  more  as  suggestions  than  as  work- 
ing plans,  although  they  can  be  used  to  build  from  by  any 
intelligent  workman. 

If  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  dimensions  of  details  of  finish 
from  the  photographs  of  residences  shown  in  this  book, 
a  scale  can  be  marked  off  easily  with  a  pencij  on  a  strip  of 
paper  or  cardboard,  using  as  a  basis  the  height  of  a  riser 
on  outside  steps,  which  is  generally  about  7  inches,  or 
use  the  width  of  an  ordinary  window  which  usually  is 
about  3  feet,  or  the  width  of  clapboards,  shingles,  or 
bricks.  A  scale  made  from  a  riser  or  window  on  front, 
can  be  used  for  all  vertical  measurements  and  all  horizon- 
tal measurements  on  the  front,  but  on  a  side,  a  separate 
scale  will  be  needed  for  horizontal  measurements  owing  to 
the  fore-shortening  of  the  perspective,  and  for  this  scale 
use  the  width  of  a  window  on  the  side,  as  a  basis.  To  the 
thoughtful,  intelligent  workman,  doubtless  other  methods 
may  suggest  themselves. 

Some  of  the  floor  plans  we  show  are  reversed,  or 
opposite  handed  from  some  of  the  views  shown  by  the 
photographs,  but  any  plan  can  be  instantly  reversed  by 
holding  it  before  a  mirror,  so  that  it  is  not  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  have  them  drawn  both  ways,  in  order  to  judge 
which  way  is  most  desirable  for  any  given  location. 

There  have  also  been  inserted  elevations,  floor  plans, 
and  framing  plans  complete,  giving  exhaustive  details  of 
a  modern  2-story  house  of  approved  design  and  construc- 
tion', together  with  Building  Specifications  and  Contract 
for  erection  of  a  moderate-priced  dwelling.  We  believe 
this  feature  will  be  greatly  appreciated  by  our  readers. 


viii  INTRODUCTION. 

We  have  had  a  great  many  inquiries  for  a  French  and 
German  edition,  —  dealers  in  the  West  saying  they  could 
sell  almost  as  many  of  those  as  of  the  English  edition, — 
but  to  all  such  we  would  say  that  the  English  edition  is  all 
we  shall  issue,  and  those  who  come  to  this  country  to 
earn  their  living,  ought  to  learn  this  country's  language, 
and  they  can  use  this  book  to  practise  reading. 

W.  A.  SYLVESTER. 
BOSTON,  June,  1896. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
13 
13 


Plate    1.     Fig.    1. — To  bisect  a  given  line 

Fig".    2.     To  bisect  an  angle 

Fig".    3.—  Given  a  tangent  to  a  circle,  to  find  tbe  exact  point 

of  contact 13 

Plate    2.     Fig.    4. — To  describe  an  ellipse  with  a  cord  or  thread           .  17 

Fig.    5.— To  describe  an  ellipse  with  the  compasses       .         .  17 

Fig.    6. — To  describe  an  ellipse  with  a  square  and  trammel  17 
Plate    3.     Fig.    7.— To    describe    an    elliptic    arch    by   finding    points 

through  which  to  spring  a  lath       ....  21 

Fig.    8. — To  describe  a  curve  of  great  radius          ...  21 

Fig.    9. — Given  a  segment  of  a  circle,  to  find  the  centre        .  21 
Plate    4.     Fig.  1O. — To  find  how  far  apart  to  saw  kerfs  to  spring  a  board 

or  moulding 23 

Fig.   11.— To  describe  a  spiral 23 

Fig.  12. — Given  one  side  to  construct  an  equilateral  triangle. 

To  describe  a  Gothic  arch 23 

Plate    5.     Fig.  13. — Given  one  side,  to  construct  a  polygon  of  nuy  num- 
ber of  equal  sides    .......  27 

Fig.  14. — Given  the   distance  across,  to   construct   a  six   or 

eight  sided  polygon 27 

Fig.  15. — To  construct  an  octagon  from  a  square  figure         .  27 

Plate    6.     Fig.  16. — On  a  given  diagonal  to  construct  a  square      .        .  29 
Fig.  17. — To  inscribe  a  circle  in  a  triangle;  also  to  describe  a 

circle  around  a  triangle 29 

Fig.  18. — To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  circle          .  29 

Plate    7.     Fig.  19.— To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  circle        ....  31 

Fig   2O. — To  inscribe  a  hexagon  in  a  circle     ...        -  31 

Fig.  21.— To  describe  the  envelope  of  a  cone          ...  31 

Plate    8.     Fig.  22.— Scale  of  degrees,  or  protractor        ....  37 

Plate    9.     Figs.  23,  24,  25,  and  26.— Splices  for  timbers         .        .  38 

Fig.  27.— Bridging  for  floors' 38 

Fig.  28. — Two   timbers  tied    together  and   supported   by   a 

braced  po«t 3S 

Plate  1O.— Plan  for  floorings,  etc 39 

Plate  11.— Elevation  of  end  frame  of  house 41 

Plate  12.— Elevation  of  side  frame  of  house 42 

Plates  13  and  14.— Pitch-roof  framing,  etj 44,  48 

Plates  15  and  16.— Hip-roof  framing 50,53 

Views  of  fine  modern  residences— frontispiece,  15,   25,  35,   45,  55,  65,75,  85,95, 

105,  115,  125, 135,  145 


10  TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGB, 

Plate  17.— Valley-roof  framing ...        57 

Plate  18. — French  and  mansard  roofs 61 

Plate  19.— To  describe  the  corner  rafti-r  on  French  roofs,  etc.  .        .        63 

Plates  2O  and  21. --Trusses  for  roof  and  bridges 69,70 

Plate  22. — The  framing  ol  a  small  spin; 71 

Plates  23  and  24.— Boarding  dome  roofs 73,74 

Plates  25  and  26.— Rake  mouldings 78,  80 

Plates  27,  28,  29,  and  3O.— Stairs 83-89 

Plate  31.     Fig.  74.— Eight-squaring  a  stick  of  square  timber        .        .        91 

Fig.  75.— To  cut  down  a  threshold 91 

Plate  32.— Mitring  straight  and  circular  mouldings  ....        93 

Plate  33. — To  find  the  bevels  for  a  hopper-box  with  butt  joints  .  .  97 
Plate  34. — To  find  the  bevels  for  a  hopper-box  with  mitre  joints  .  .  100 
Plate  35.— To  describe  the  form  of  board  for  the  finish  at  the  top  of  a 

splayed  circular-top  window 101 

BUILDERS'  ESTIMATES 102 

Table  of  brace  measure 107 

Table  of  hoard,  plank,  and  scantling  measure 108-110 

Table  of  sizes  and  weights  of  window-sash,  etc 113,114 

Bins  for  grain  and  rule  for  estimating 117 

Bins  for  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  and  rule  for  estimating   ....      118 
Rule  for  estimating  the  size  of  tank  to  hold  a  given  number  of  gallons        118 

Bins  for  coal  and  rule  for  estimating 119 

Miscellaneous:  table  of  weights  of  various  materials      .         .        .       119,120 

Plate  36.— Miscellaneous 123 

Plate  37.— Illustrations  of  the  markings  on  rules  and  squares          .       128,  129 

The  slide  rule  and  how  to  use  it 138 

Glueing  and  Veneering 148 

Table  of  strength  of  materials,  and  rules  for  estimating  the  sizes  of  tim- 

hers,  columns,  beams,  etc 151-160 

MATHEMATICS: 160-174 

Mensuration;  also  table  of  diameter,  circumference,  and  area  of 
circles,  and  table  of -decimal  parts  of  feet  and  inches,  with 

their  fractional  equivalents 174  to  177 

The  metric  system  of  weights  :>nd  measures,  giving  the  tables  author- 
ized by  Congress 178,  179 

Building  specifications 180-191 

Building  contract 192-193 

How  to  Plan  Houses 194-195 

Remarks  on  our  Illustrations 196-198 

Criticisms  of  House  Plans 199-204 

Remarks  on  P^lans  for  W.  A.  Sylvester's  house        ....        205-208 

Framing  plans  of  same 209-221 

Twenty  floor  plans 222-241 

Glossary  of  architectural  terms 242-254 


MODERN  CARPENTRY 

AND 

BUILDING. 


Plate  1.  Fig.  1.  To  bisect  a  given  line. — Let  ab  be 
the  given  line.  With  a  radius  somewhat  more 
than  half  of  the  length  of  this  line,  and  using  the 
points  a  and  b  for  centres,  describe  arcs  intersect- 
ing above  and  below  the  given  line,  through  which 
points  of  intersection  draw  the  line  c  d. 

Plate  1.  Fig.  2.  To  bisect  an  angle.  —  Let  a  b  c  be 
the  given  angle.  With  b  as  a  centre,  and  with  any 
radius,  describe  the  arc  de.  Then,  using  d  and  e 
for  centres,  and  with  a  radius  somewhat  more  than 
half  of  the  length  of  de,  describe  arcs  intersecting 
at/.  Then  draw  a  line  from  b  through  the  inter- 
section at/. 

Plate  1.  Fig.  3.  Given  a  tangent  t  a  circle,  to  find 
the  exact  point  of  contact.  —  Let  .b  be  a  tangent 

11 


12  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUJLDING. 

to  the  circle^  the  centre  of  which  is  at  c.  Draw  a 
line  from  c  to  any  point  on  the  tangent,  as  at  d. 
From  £,  the  centre  of  this  line,  and  with  a  radius 
equal  to  ce,  describe  an  arc.  The  point  where 
this  arc  crosses  the  tangent  at  /  is  the  exact  point 
of  contact. 

I  "late  2.  Fig.  4.  To  describe  an  ellipse  with  a  cord 
or  thread.  —  Draw  the  line  a  b  representing  the 
length  of  the  required,  ellipse.  Bisect  this  line 
(see  Plate  1,  Fig.  1);  which  gives  the  line  cd,  the 
length  of  which  must  be  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  required  ellipse.  With  a  pair  of  compasses, 
take  the  length  of  ae.  Then,  with  c  as  a  centre, 
describe  arcs  intersecting  the  line  a  b  at  /  and  at 
g :  at  each  of  these  three  places,  /,  g,  and  £,  stick 
in  a  pin.  Now  pass  a  piece  of  cord  or  thread 
around  these  pins,  draw  it  taut,  and  tie  it.  Now 
remove  the  pin  from  c,  and,  holding  a  pencil  in 
the  bight  of  the  cord,  draw  it  around  through 
c,  £>,  c?,  and  a,  keeping  the  thread  at  a  uniform 
tension.  A  notch  made  in  the  side  of  the  pencil- 
lead,  near  the  point,  will  prevent  the  thread  from 
slipping  off. 

A  wire  thread  about  the  size  of  No.  40  or  60 
linen  thread  would  be  better  to  use,  as  it  will  not 
stretch.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  for  the  work- 
man to  keep  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  of  it 
in  his  chest,  rolled  up  on  a  spool,  the  same  as  a 


Plate  1. 


13 


14  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

chalk-line.     It  would  als'j  be  very  convenient  to 
use  in  describing  a  circle  of  great  radius. 

Plate  2.  Fig.  5.  To  describe  an. ellipse  with  the  com- 
passes.—  Draw  the  line  a  5,  which  represents  the 
length  of  the  required  ellipse.  Bisect  this  line 
(see  Plate  1,  Fig.  1),  which  gives  ce.  Make  the 
length  of  ed  equal  to  half  the  width  of  the  re- 
quired ellipse.  '  Divide  c  d  into  three  equal  parts, 
the  points  of  division  being  at  /  and  g.  Measure 
off  from  «,  and  also  from  5,  the  length  of  two  of 
these  parts;  which  gives  the  points  i  and  i  2.  Joiv 
•/  and  g.  Bisect  this  line,  continuing  the  bisecting 
line  until  it  intersects  with  the  line  ce.  At  e  is 
the  centre  from  which  to  describe  the  f-'ide  of  the 
ellipse,  and  the  points  i  and  i  2  are  the  centres 
from  which  to  describe  the  ends.  A  line  drawn 
from  e,  through  the  points  i  and  i  2,  will  show 
where  the  curve  of  the  sides  and  the  curve  of  the 
ends  meet,  as  seen  at  j  and  k. 

Plate  2.  Fig.  6.  To  describe  an  ellipse  with  a  two- 
foot  square.  —  Draw  a  line  al  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  the  required  ellipse.  Lay  the  square 
on  the  liii  j  so  that  the  inside  edge  of  the  blade 
will  be  on  die  line,  and  the  inside  corner  e  will  be 
111  the  centre  of  the  ellipse.  Then,  with  any  strip 
of  board,  form  a  trammel  as  follows :  an  inch  or  so 
from  one  end  drive  a  brad  through  at  /,  letting  it 


OF   THB 

UNIVERSITY 


Plate  2. 


17 


18  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   Bl'ILUIXti. 

project  through  about  an  eighth  OL-  an  inch.  From 
this  point,  measure  off  one-half  the  width  of  the 
ellipse.  At  this  point,  bore  a  small  hole,  and  insert 
a  piece  of  pencil,  g,  which  must  project  down  far 
enough  to  mark  when  the  trammel  is  laid  down 
on  the  square.  Then,  from  this  point,  measure  off 
one-half  the  length,  of  the  ellipse,  and  drive 
through  a  brad,  A,  letting  it  project  below  the 
same,  as  at  /.  Then,  by  sliding  down  on  />,  and 
letting  /  move  to  the  left,  all  the  while  keeping  h 
and  /  hard  up  against  the  edge  of  the  square,  the 
pencil  g  will  describe  one-quarter  of  an  ellipse. 
Then  turn  the  square  over  so  that  the  end  a  will 
be  in  the  direction  of  &,  keeping  the  inside  corner 
of  the  square  on  the  point  e,  and  describe  the  other 
quarter  in  the  same  manner,  thus  forming  half  of 
an  ellipse,  the  other  half  of  which  may  be  described 
in  the  same  manner,  by  reversing  the  end  i. 

This  rule  applies  when  the  sum  of  half  the 
length  and  half  the  width  of  the  ellipse  does  not 
exceed  the  length  of  the  tongue  of  the  square. 
For  larger  ellipses,  two  straight-edged  pieces  of 
board  might  be  used,  one  being  a  c  and  the  other 
e  z,  which  could  be  fastened  to  the  work  at  right 
angles  with  each  other. 

Plate  3.  .  Fig.  7.  To  describe  an  elliptic  arch  by  find- 
ing points  through  which  to  spring  a  lath.  —  Let 
a  b  be  the  span  or  chord  of  the  required  arch, 


MODERX   CAlll'EXTHY  AXD   BUILDIXG.  19 

and  cd  be  tlie  rise.  At  a  and  at  b,  draw  perpen- 
dicular lines,  a  e  and  b  /,  to  the  height  of  c  d. 
Also  draw  a  line  joining  e  and  /.  Divide  d  f 
}u\d  f  b  each  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as 
1,  2,  8,  4,  and  5,  G,  7,  8.  Draw  lines  joining  d  and 
5,  1  and  6,  2  and  7,  3  and  8,  and  4  and  6.  Then 
through  the  points  of  intersection,  d,  y,  h,  i,j\  and 
/>,  spring  a  thin  strip  of  board,  and  mark  around 
it.  Repeat  the  operation  on  the  other  side. 

This  method  is  very  much  used  by  builders,  but 
we  prefer  the  method  described  in  Plate  2,  Fig.  4. 

Plate  3.  Fig.  8.  To  describe  a  curve  of  great  ra- 
dius. It  is  sometimes  desired  to  describe  a  curve 
of  great  radius.  The  usual  method  is  to  use  a 
line  (for  a  radius  to  strike  the  curve),  but  a  line 
stretches  so  as  to  give  an  irregular  curve ;  and 
then,  again,  there  is  not  always  room  to  use  a 
sufficiently  long  radius.  The  method  described 
in  Fig.  8  is  the  best  way  in  such  cases,  when  the 
rise  and  span  are  known ,  it  being  very  quickly 
<lone,  and  giving  a  true  curve. 

Let  ab  be  the  span,  and  c  be  the  rise.*  Tack 
in  a  nail  at  a  and  at  b.  Take  two  strips  *>f  board 
four  or  five  inches  wide,  and  six  or  eight  inches 
longer  than  the  span  of  the  required  curve.  Joint 
straight  one  edge  of  each.  Lay  one  piece  with 
the  straight  edge  in  against  a  c,  and  lay  the  other 
piece  with  the  straight  edge  in  against  b  c,  letting 

*  When  the  rise  is  not  known,  and  only  the  radius  is  given,  see  p.  l'J4  to  find  rise- 


20  MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

the  ends  lap  at  c,  and  drive  in  a  nail.  Also  fasten 
a  stay  across,  so  that  when  the  sides  are  against 
the  nails  at  a  and  5,  the  corner  of  the  frame  will 
be  at  c.  Then,  keeping  this  frame  against  the 
nails  at  a  and  ft,  slide  the  frame  around,  holding 
a  pencil  at  c:  the  pencil  will  describe  a  true 
curve,  as  shown  in  the  dotted  line.  A  piece  of 
one-eighth  inch  round  wire,  two  or  three  inches 
long,  would  be  better  than  nails  to  tack  in  at  a 
and  I. 

Plate  3.  Fig.  9.  Given  a  segment  of  a  circle,  to 
find  the  centre.  —  Mark  off  any  three  points  on  the 
segment,  as  a,  5,  c.  With  a  and  also  with  b  for  a 
centre,  and  a  radius  somewhat  more  than  half  of 
a  c,  describe  the  arcs  d  e  and  fg.  Then,  with  c 
for  a  centre,  describe  arcs  intersecting  these,  as 
shown  in  the  cut.  Through  the  points  of  inter- 
section at  d  e  and/*^,  draw  lines,  continuing  them 
until  they  intersect  at  /*,  which  point  is  the  centre 
from  which  the  segment  a  b  was  described. 

When  the  segment  is  very  large,  or  when  it  is 
desired  to  be  very  exact,  the  quickest  and  best 
way  is  to  figure  out  the  centre,  which  may  be 
clone  as  follows :  Square  half  of  the  span ;  to  this 
add  the  square  of  the  rise,  which  sum  divide  by 
the  rise :  the  quotient  is  the  diameter  of  the  circle, 
of  which  the  given  segment  is  a  part.  Thus,  sup- 
pose the  span  a  b  is  GO  inches,  the  rise,  10  inches : 


Plate  3 


J       4 


ft  9.9. 


21 


22  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

then  half  of  the  span  is  30  inches,  the  square  of 
which  is  30  x  30-900.  The  square  of  the  rise, 
10  inches,  is  10  x  10  =  100,  which,  added  to  900r 
the  square  of  half  the  span,  makes  1,000;  which,, 
divided  by  the  rise,  10,  gives  100  inches  —  that  is,. 
8  feet,  4  inches — as  the  diameter.1 

Plate  4.  Fig.  10.  To  find  how  far  apart  to  saw  kerfs 
to  spring  a  board  or  moulding.  —  Let  a  b  be  the 
curve,  around  which  it  is  desired  to  spring  a  piece 
of  stock.  Take  a  piece  of  stock  d  g  of  the  thick- 
ness which  is  to  be  used;  lay  it  down  so  that  the 
edge  shall  pass  through  the  centre  c,  and  mark 
from  c  to  g,  and  also  at  e.  Now,  with  the  saw 
which  is  to  be  used,  make  a  kerf  nearly  through 
the  piece  of  stock  at  c.  Now,  keeping  this  piece 
on  the  line  eg,  spring  down  the  end  d  until  the 
kerf  is  closed,  then  mark  the  point  /;  ef  will  be 
the  distance  apart  to  saw  kerfs. 

Plate  4.  Pig.  11.  To  describe  a  spiral.  —  Draw  a 
line  a  b,  on  which,  near  the  centre,  locate  two 
points,  d  and  e,  which  must  be  placed  just  half 
as  far  apart  as  it  is  desired  to  have  the  lines  of  the 
spiral.  Midway  between  these  two  points  is  c^ 
the  centre  of  the  circle  from  which  the  spiral  be- 
gins. 

Place    one   point   of  the    compasses   in    e,  and 
with  a  radius  of  e  1,  describe  the  semicircle  1,  2. 

1  When  the  diameter  is  given,  to  find  the  rise  for  any  chord  or  span,  see 
p. 124. 


Plate  4. 


23 


24  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Then,  using  d  for  a  centre,  and  with  a  radius  of 
d  2,  describe  the  semicircle  2,  3.  Then,  again, 
with  e  for  a  centre,  and  with  a  radius  of  e  3, 
describe  the  semicircle  3,  4,  and  so  on. 

This  rule  does  not  give  a  true  spiral,  although 
it  answers  in  most  cases.  To  describe  a  perfect 
spiral,  turn  out  a  piece  of  wood,  an  inch  long,  of 
such  size  that  the  circumference  of  this  piece  shall 
be  equal  to  the  length  of  space  between  the  lines 
of  the  spiral ;  that  is,  the  diameter  of  this  piece 
shall  be  about  one-third  of  the  distance  between 
the  lines  of  the  spiral. 

Fasten  this  turned  piece  in  the  centre  of  the 
intended  spiral,  and  fasten  one  end  of  a  piece  of 
thread  to  this  piece.  Wind  the  thread  around 
this  piece,  and  make  a  loop  in  the  last  end  of 
the  thread.  Now,  holding  a  pencil  plumb  in 
this  loop,  swing  the  pencil  around  so  as  to  un- 
wind the  thread,  letting  the  pencil  mark  as  the 
thread  unwinds.  The  pencil  will  describe  a  true 
spiral 

Plate  4.  Fig.  12.  Given  one  side  to  construct  an 
equilateral  triangle.  —  Let  a  b  be  the  given  side. 
First  with  a,  and  then  with  />,  for  centres,  and  with 
a  radius  equal  to  a  6,  describe  arcs  intersecting  at 
<?.  Join  a  c  and  b  c,  which  forms  the  required  tri- 
angle. The  arcs  thus  described,  which  are  shown 
in  dotted  lines,  also  form  a  Gothic  arch. 


Plate  5 


27 


28  MODERN  CARPENTRY   AND   BUILDING. 

Plate  5.  Fig.  13.  Given  one  side  to  construct  a 
polygon  of  any  number  of  sides.  —  Let  a  b  represent 
one  side  of  a  five-sided  polygon  (pentagon).  Con- 
tinue a  b  indefinitely  toward  c.  With  a  for  a  cen- 
tre, and  a  radius  equal  to  a  b,  describe  a  semicircle, 
which  divide  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  sides 
in  the  required  polygon.  From  a  draw  a  line  to 
the  division  2.  With  these  three  points,  a,  b,  and 
2,  find  the  centre  of  a  circle,  the  circumference 
of  which  will  pass  through  them.  (See  Plate  8, 
Fig.  9.)  Then  space  off  this  circle,  making  the 
spaces  the  length  of  the  given  side  a  b,  which 
gives  the  points  «,  £,  e,  d.  and  2.  Join  these 
points,  and  we  have  the  required  polygon. 

Plate  5.  Fig.  14.  Given  the  distance  across,  to  con- 
struct a  six  or  eight  sided  pofyf/on  (hexagon  or  octa- 
gon). —  Draw  a  circle,  the  diameter  of  which  equals 
the  distance  across  the  required  polygon,  through 
the  centre  of  which  draw  the  line  A  B.  Space  the 
circle  into  six  or  eight  parts,  as  may  be  required, 
and  draw  lines  from  the  centre  through  the  points 
of  division.  Join /'and  d.  With  a  pair  of  com- 
passes take  the  distance  which  the  centre,  b,  of 
this  line  falls  short  of  the  point  a,  and  lay  off  the 
same  from  fto  c  ;  also  from  d  to  c.  Now  draw  a 
line  joining  c  and  ?,  continuing  the  line  to  the  point 
A.  Then  with  g  for  a  centre,  and  a  radius  of  y  A, 
describe  a  circle.  Join  the  points  where  the  radial 


Plats  6 


Fig.lt. 


Fiy.tr. 


fiy./S>. 


30  MODERX  CAKFEXTHY  AXD   BUILD  I XU. 

lines  cross  this  circle:  and  the  result  is  the  required 
polygon. 

This  method  is  used  when  part  of  a  piece  of 
turned  work  is  to  be  six  or  eight  squared,  and 
the  distance  across  the  squares  is  given. 

Plate  5.  Fig.  15.  To  construct  an  octagon  from  a 
square.  —  Let  «,  l>,  c,  d,  be  the  given  square.  Join 
a  and  d.  With  c  for  a  centre,  and  a  radius  tan- 
gent to  this  line,  describe  an  arc  intersecting  the 
sides  of  the  given  square.  Then,  with  the  points 
#,  5,  and  d  for  centres,  and  with  the  same  radius, 
describe  other  arcs  in  the  same  manner.  Join  the 
points  of  intersection  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The 
result  is  the  required  octagon. 

Plate  6.  Fig.  16.  On  a  given  diagonal  to  construct 
a  square.  —  Let  a  b  be  the  given  diagonal.  Bisect 
al  (see  Plate  1,  Fig.  1),  getting  the  line  c  d. 
Take  the  point  of  intersection,  e,  for  a  centre,  and 
with  a  radius  equal  to  a  e,  cut  c  and  d.  Join  a  d, 
cb,  ac,  and  d  6,  and  we  have  the  required  square. 

Plate  6.  Fig.  17.  To  inscribe  a  circle  in  a  triangle  ; 
also  to  describe  a  circle  around  a  triangle.  —  To  in- 
scribe a  circle  in  a  triangle,  bisect  any  two  of  the 
angles  ^see  Plate  1,  Fig.  2),  continuing  the  bisect- 
ing lines  until  they  meet,  which  point  is  the  centre 
from  which  to  strike  an  inscribed  circle. 


Plate  7. 


J 


MODERN  CARPJSXTRY  AXD   JiVTLDIXG. 

To  describe  a  circle  around  a  triangle,  bisect  any 
two  of  the  sides,  continuing  the  bisecting  lines 
until  they  meet,  which  point  is  the  centre  from 
which  to  describe  a  circle  around  the  triangle1. 

Plate  6.  Fig  18.  To  inscribe  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle in  a  circle.  —  Through  the  centre  of  the 
circle,  draw  the  vertical  line  a  b.  With  b  for  a 
centre,  and  a  radius  the  same  as  used  to  describe 
the  given  circle,  describe  an  arc  intersecting  at 
d  and  e.  Join  a  d,  a  e,  and  d  e,  which  forms 
an  inscribed  triangle. 

Plate  7.     Fig.  19.      To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  circle. 

—  Through  the  centre  of  the  circle,  draw  the  line 
a  b  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.     (See  Plate  8,  Fig. 
22.)    Bisect  this  line,  producing  the  line  c  d.    Join 
a  d,  c  b,  a  c,  and  d  5,  which  forms  the   inscribed 
square. 

Plate  7.     Fig.  2O.      To  inscribe  a  hexagon  in  a  circle. 

—  The    radius   used   to    describe    the    circle    will 
space   around   the    circumference  just  six   times: 
and,  by  joining  these  points,  the  required  inscribed 
hexagon  is  formed. 

Plate  7.  Fig.  21.  To  describe  the  envelope  of  a 
cone.  —  Let  A  be  the  apex  of  the  cone,  and  B  C 
be  the  base.  The  rule  commonly  given  is,  to  use 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.  33 

A  for  a  centre,  and  with  a  radius  of  A  C  describe 
an  arc,  as  shown  at  C  D.  Then,  with  the  radius 
used  to  describe  the  plan  of  the  base, —  the  diame- 
ter of  which  is  B  C,  —  lay  off  six  spaces.  (The  cut, 
for  lack  of  room,  shows  only  half  of  them.)  Draw 
lines  joining  the  first  and  the  last  of  these  spaces 
to  A. 

This  is  not  exact.  Lay  off  on  each  side  of  the 
cone  the  thickness  of  the  envelope,  which  gives 
a  b  c,  which  is  to  be  considered  as  the  cone.  Then, 
with  a  for  a  centre,  and  a  radius  of  a  c,  describe  an 
arc  the  same  as  previously  described.  Then  find 
the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cone,  the 
diameter  of  which  is  b  c.  This  is  found  by  multi- 
plying the  diameter  b  c  by  3.1416,  or  3f .  This 
length  is  to  be  measured  around  the  curve  of  the 
base  of  the  envelope,  which  determines  the  length 
of  the  envelope.  Then  join  these  ends  to  «,  which 
gives  the  form  of  the  envelope. 

If  the  cone  is  truncated,  that  is,  the  top  cut  off, 
as  shown  at  x  y,  then  y  z  shows  the  top  of  the 
envelope. 

Plate  8.  Fig.  22.  We  give  here  a  scale  of  degrees, 
commonly  called  a  Protractor,  which  we  believe 
will  be  found  quite  convenient.  The  various  mi- 
tres and  angles  may  be  taken  from  this  protractor 
by  placing  a  bevel  with  the  stock  on  the  line,  as 
shown  in  the  cut,  and  running  the  tongue  from  the 


34  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING. 

point  a  to  the  number  of  degrees  required.  The 
degrees  continue  on  from  90  to  180 ;  although  we 
have  not  divided  or  numbered  them,  as  we  have 
those  from  0  up  to  90. 

The  angles  of  an  equilateral  triangle  are  60° ;  the  mitre  is 

30°. 

The  angles  of  a  square  figure  are  90°  ;  the  mitre  is  45°. 
The  angles  of  a  hexagon  are  120° ;  the  mitre  is  60°. 
The  angles  of  an  octagon  are  135° ;  the  mitre  is  67 £°. 

The  sills  of  window-frames  are  usually  set  at  an 
angle  of  10  degrees.  A  feAv  builders  set  them 
steeper.  We  have  seen  some  set  at  an  angle  of 
nearly  20  degrees. 

Plate  9.  Figs.  23,  24,  25,  and  26,  illustrate  different 
methods  of  splicing  timbers.  Fig.  26  is  a  keyed 
diagonal  splice,  the  shoulders  being  cut  square 
with  the  slant  of  the  splice.  The  shaded  part  is 
a  hard-wood  key. 

Fig.  27  is  bridging  for  floors.  Common  strap- 
ping 1x3  inches  is  generally  used ;  although  for 
heavy  floors  11x3  or  4  inches  may  be  used,  being 
fastened  with  two  good  nails  at  each  end. 

Fig.  28  represents  two  timbers  tied  together, 
and  supported  by  a  braced  post.  The  notching  in 
the  post  and  timbers  for  the  braces  should  be  cut 
square  with  the  slant  of  the  braces,  as  shown  in 
the  cut. 


Plate  9. 


fl 'a.  Z1. 


Plate  W. 


Fig.Z.9. 


39 


40  MODERN  CARPKXTHY  AXD    BUILDING. 

Plate  1O.  Fig.  29  shows  a  plan  for  floorings.  The 
timbers  are  usually  gained  into  the  sills  2  inches, 
and  down  4  inches,  so  as  to  bring  the  top  of  the 
timbers  even  with  the  top  of  the  sills.  The  plan 
shows  an  opening  for  stairs.  The  headers  b  b,  and 
the  trimmer  #,  which  is  also  shown  in  Fig.  30,  are 
made  of  extra  thickness :  where  the  floorings  are  2 
inches  thick,  the  headers  and  trimmer  should  be 
3  inches  thick. 

The  end  sills  should  be  7  or  8  inches  wide,  so  as 
to  get  a  good  nailing  for  the  ends  of  the  upper 
floor-boards,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31 ;  while  if  the  sills 
are  narrow,  as  seen  in  Fig.  32,  the  ends  of  the 
upper  floor-boards  have  no  timber  to  nail  into. 

Plate  11.  Fig.  33.  An  end  elevation  of  a  tivo  and 
one-half  story  dwelling-house.  —  The  dotted  lines  at 
g  y  show  the  position  of  the  girts  or  ledger-boards 
on  the  side  of  the  building,  being  put  down  so  that 
the  floorings  may  set  on  them,  and  come  even  with 
the  top  side  of  the  end  girt. 

Plate  12.  Fig.  34.  The  side  elevation  of  the  same 
house  as  Fig.  33,  being  represented  with  side  girts.  — 
Another  way,  and  in  some  respects  to  be  preferred 
to  this  way,  is  to  use  ledger-boards  instead  of  girts, 
which  allows  the  studding  to  run  whole  length  from 
the  sill  to  the  plate.  Braces  may  be  put  from  the 
sills  to  the  posts,  and  from  the  plates  to  the  posts. 
With  girts  there  are  more  chances  to  put  braces. 


Plate  11. 


41 


Plate  12. 


1     I 


i    i 


VA 


\ 


MODERN    CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING.  4tf 

Plate  13.  Fig.  35  shows  the  method  of  finding  the 
bevels  of  rafters  for  pitcli  roofs.  Let  a  b  be  the 
width  of  the  building,  which  may  be  drawn  to 
the  scale  of  one  and  one-half  inches  to  the  foot,  — 
each  one-eighth  inch  of  the  drawing  representing 
one  inch,  —  and  c  d  be  the  rise.  Join  a  and  c,  which 
gives  the  pitch  of  the  roof.  At  c  is  seen  the  bevel 
for  the  top  of  the  rafter,  and  at  a  is  seen  the 
bevel  for  the  rafter  where  it  rests  on  the  plate  as 
shown  at  a  e,  Fig.  36. 

Fig.  36  shows  the  manner  of  laying  out  a  rafter. 
The  crowning  edge  of  the  timbers  should  always 
be  the  outside  edge  of  the  rafters.  Having  laid 
out  and  made  off  one  rafter,  use  it  as  a  pattern  with 
which  to  lay  out  the  others,  keeping  them  even  at 
5,  and  at  the  top  end  c.  When  there  is  a  ridge- 
piece,  cut  off  from  the  end  of  the  rafter  half  of 
the  thickness  of  the  ridge-piece,  measured  square 
from  c  d.  (See  also  Plate  14,  Fig.  38.) 

Fig.  37  shows  a  way  of  getting  the  length  and 
bevels  of  rafters  with  a  two-foot  square.  Have  the 
outside  edge  of  the  rafter  next  to  you.  Suppose 
that  the  width  of  the  building  is  20  feet,  and  the 
rise  of  the  roof  is  7  feet.  Let  inches  on  the  square 
represent  feet  on  the  building.  Take  half  the 
width  of  the  building  — 10  inches  —  on  the  blade 
of  the  square,  and  take  the  rise  —  7  inches  —  on 
the  tongue.  Hold  the  square  as  shown  in  the 
cut,  having  these  points  even  with  the  top  edge 


Plate  13. 


MODEliX    CARPEXTKY  A\D   HU1LDIXG.  47 

of  the  rafter.  The  bevel  on  the  rafter  at  the 
blade  of  the  square  is  the  bevel  of  the  rafter  where 
it  sets  011  the  plate  as  seen  at  a  <\  Fig.  8(3.  The 
bevel  on  the  rafter  at  the  tongue  of  the  square  is 
the  down  bevel  for  the  top  of  the  rafter.  Now, 
as  the  measures  on  the  square  were  in  inches, 
while  those  on  the  building  were  in  feet,  it  follows 
that  the  diagonal  from  10  inches  on  the  blade  to 
7  inches  on  the  tongue  of  the  square  is  -jV  of  the 
length  of  the  rafter:  so,  by  measuring  off  1:2 
times  this  length,  we  have  the  length  of  the  rafter. 
Where  there  is  a  ridge-piece,  do  as  directed  in 
Fig.  36.  > 

Piate  14.  Fig.  38  represents  the  rafters  of  a  pitch 
roof.  Fig.  39  represents  the  rafters  of  a  hip 
roof.  If  the  rafters  on  a  pitch  roof  are  2  x  6 
inches,  they  should  be  notched  for  the  plate  so  as 
to  leave  the  rafter  4  or  4£  inches  at  the  narrowest 
point;  then  measure  the  perpendicular  width  at 
this  point,  as  indicated  by  the  line  A  a.  Subtract 
this  amount  from  the  rise  of  the  roof,  and  it  gives 
the  rise  to  use  in  getting  the  bevels  for  the  rafters 
as  described  in  Fig.  35,  Plate  13. 

In  framing  the  rafters  for  hip  roofs,  Fig.  39, 
there  is  not  usually  so  much  stock  in  the  rafter 
above  the  plates  as  there  is  in  rafters  for  pitch 
roofs  ;  the  lower  end  of  the  rafter  being  dropped  in 
order  to  have  sufficient  stock  to  form  a  crow-foot. 

1  The  lengths  and  bevels  of  braces  may  be  found  in  a  similar  manner.  Sup. 
pose  the  run  is  36  inches  by  48  inches,  we  may  take  any  fractional  part  of  the 
run  on  the  square,  say,  for' instance,  one-third,  which  will  be  12  inches  on  th? 
tongue,  and  Iti  inches  on  the  blade  of  the  square:  then  three  times  tht  d'^otia] 
thcs  ob^n^i  v»ill  be  the  length  of  the  brace. 


Plate  14. 


48 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.  49 

Fig.  40  shows  the  three  pitches  in  common  use. 
The  pitch  at  e  is  called  the  square  pitch,  the  slant 
of  one  side  of  the  roof  being  at  right  angles  to  the 
slant  of  the  other  side,  the  pitch  of  the  roof  being 
45  degrees.  The  pitch  at  d  is  f  pitch,  the  length 
of  the  rafters  being  §  of  the  width  of  the  build- 
ing. The  pitch  at  c  is  called  \  pitch,  the  rise  being 
$  of  the  width  of  the  building,  t  There  is  also  the 
Gothic  pitch  where  the  length  of  the  rafters  is 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  building. 

Plate  15  shows  the  method  of  getting  the  lengths 
and  finding  the  bevels  of  rafters  for  hip  roofs. 
Fig.  41  is  the  elevation  of  the  roof,  a  b  being  the 
width  of  the  building,  and  c  d  being  the  rise  of 
the  roof ;  a  d  and  b  d  are  the  length  of  the  com- 
mon rafters,  the  bevels  of  which  are  found  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  bevels  of  rafters  for  pitch 
roofs. 

Fig.  42.  —  a  b  c  d  is  the  plan  of  the  building ;  ej 
is  the  plan  of  the  ridge-piece ;  a/,  £>/,  c  e  and  d  e, 
is  the  plan  of  the  hip  rafters.  Draw  the  line  g  h, 
the  length  of  the  common  rafter  a  d,  square  with 
the  line  a  c ;  and,  passing  through  e,  join  c  and  A, 
which  gives  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter ;  draw  the 
line  op  through  h  parallel  to  ef;  the  edge  bevel 
of  the  hip  rafter  is  shown  at  h* and  the  edge  bevel 
of  the  jack  rafters  is  shown  at  j ;  the  lengths  of 
the  jack  rafters  are  m  n,  kl,  and  ij\  the  down 

*  First  buck  off  the  upper  edge  of  the  hip  rafter,  then  use  this  bevel.  The 
rafter  will  not  fit  if  this  bevel  is  used  before  the  rafter  is  backed  off. 

t  We  believe  this  is  the  proper  method  to  designate  the  pitch,  instead  of  the 
other  method. 


Plate  15. 


.  if. 


50 


MODE11X  CAHPEXTin'  AXD   BUILDING.  51 

Levels  being  the  same  as  the  down  bevels  of  the 
common  rafters. 

To  find  the  down  bevels  for  the  hip  rafter, 
Plate  16,  Fig.  43,  make  a  h  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  plan  of  the  hip  rafter  (a/,  Fig.  42),  and 
make  g  h  equal  to  the  rise  of  the  roof,  c  d  ;  join  a 
.and  #,  which  gives  the  elevation  of  the  hip  rafter;- 
the  bevel  for  the  foot  being  shown  at  «,  and  the 
<lown  bevel  for  the  top  being  shown  at  g. 

To  find  the  backing  of  the  hip  rafter  (that  is, 
the  amount  necessary  to  chamfer  the  top  edge), 
take  any  point  on  the  line  a  £>,  Fig.  41,  as  e;  draw 
&  line  through  this  point,  square  with  the  slant  of 
the  roof,  as  seen  at  ef.  Take  the  distance  from  a 
to  e  (Fig.  41),  and  lay  it  off  from  a  to  r,  and  from 
a  to  s  (Fig.  42).  Join  r  and  s.  Take  the  distance 
from  e  to  /  (Fig.  41),  and  set  it  off  from  t  to  u 
(Fig.  42).  Join  ru  and  s  u;  then  rus  is  a  sec- 
tion of  the  roof  cut  across  the  corner  at  r  s,  and 
<mt  down  square  with  the  slant  of  the  roof,  as  seen 
fit  ef  (Fig.  41).  Now  lay  off  the  thickness  of  the 
Hp  rafter,  equally  each  side  of  the  line  t  M,  and  we 
have  the  shape  of  a  section  of  the  hip  rafter ;  and 
the  amount  necessary  to  chamfer  may  be  seen,  or 
a  bevel  may  be  set  at  the  angle  formed  by  the 
lines  u  r  and  u  t. 

In  getting  these  bevels,  the  work  may  be  drawn 
to  the  scale  of  1£  inches  to  the  foot,  each  |  inch 
representing  one  inch  of  the  work. 


52  MODEKX  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

If  the  hip  roof  is  placed  above  a  French  or  man- 
sard roof  which  tumbles  in,  then  the  drawing  of 
the  plan  of  the  hip  roof  must  be  made  of  the  size 
of  the  upper  plates,  instead  of  the  size  of  the 
building. 

Greater  accuracy  is  obtained  by  figuring  out  the 
lengths  of  the  hip  and  common  rafters.  To  find 
the  length  of  the  common  rafters,  square  half  of 
the  width  of  the  building ;  also  square  the  rise 
of  the  roof ;  add  together  these  two  amounts,  and 
extract  the  square  root  (see  the  mathematical  part 
of  this  book)  :  the  result  is  the  length  of  the  com- 
mon rafter.  To  find  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter, 
square  the  length  of  the  common  rafter ;  also 
square  half  the  width  of  the  building;  add  to- 
gether these  two  amounts,  and  extract  the  square 
root:  the  result  is  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter, 
on  the  centre  line,  as  seen  at  a  li,  Fig.  44.  From 
these  lengths  half  of  the  thickness  of  the  ridge- 
piece  must  be  deducted  in  the  manner  before  de- 
scribed. The  dimensions  should  be  taken  in 
inches.  This  rule  to  figure  out  the  lengths  applies 
only  to  square  buildings,  and  where  the  pitch  of 
the  roof  is  the  same  on  all  sides.  Where  the 
buildings  are  not  square,  then  draw  a  plan  of 
the  whole  roof,  and  find  the  lengths  and  bevels 
of  the  hip  and  jack  rafters  for  each  of  the  different 
corners,  as  described  in  Pig.  42. 


Plate  16. 


54  MODERN  CARPEXTl-iY  AND    BUILDING. 

Plate  16.  Fig.  44  shows  the  framing  of  a  hip  roof. 
The  centre  lines  in  the  hip  rafters  and  in  the 
ridge-piece  are  the  lines  representing  the  plan 
of  the  hip  rafters  and  the  ridge-piece  in  Fig.  42r 
Plate  15.  For  convenience  of  fastening  the  hip 
rafters  to  the  ridge-piece,  this  piece  is  made  two 
or  three  inches  longer  at  each  end  than  hj,  and 
the  rafters  n  n  are  cut  as  much  short  of  their 
whole  length  as  the  ridge-piece  extends  beyond  h 
OTJ;  the  ridge-piece  being  scarfed  from  the  points 
h  and  /,  to  the  pitch  of  the  rafters,  n  n. 

Plate  17  shows  the  method  of  getting  the  lengths 
and  finding  the  bevels  of  rafters  for  valley  roofs. 
Fig.  45  is  an  elevation  of  the  roof;  a  b  is  the  width 
of  the  building ,  c  d  is  the  rise  of  the  roof  (see 
Plate  14,  Fig.  38,  deduct  a  A  from  the  whole  rise, 
and  then  consider  C  D  as  the  rise)  ;  b  e  is  the  rise 
of  the  cross  roof,  and/e  is  the  ridge  of  the  same. 
The  bevel  for  the  foot  of  the  common  rafters  of 
the  main  roof  is  seen  at  b  ;  at  c?  is  seen  the  down 
bevel  for  the  top  of  the  common  rafters,  and  for  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  jack  rafters,  4  5,  and  6  w. 

Fig.  46.  —  a  b  c  d  is  a  plan  of  the  roof;  ef  is  the 
ridge  of  the  main  roof;  g  li  and  i  h  is  the  plan 
of  the  long  valley  rafters  ;  j  k  and  I  m  is  the  plan  of 
the  short  valley  rafters ;  z  m  and  k  p  is  the  plan 
of  the  ridge  of  the  cross  roof.  Lay  off  from  d  to 
n  the  length  of  the  common  rafter  a  d  (Fig.  45) ; 


Plate  17. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

draw  the  line  n  o  parallel  to  ef;  then  from  7i  — 
the  point  where  the  plan  of  the  valley  rafter  joins 
the  ridge  —  draw  the  line  o  li  square  with  the  line 
ef;  join  o  and  g,  which  gives  the  length  of  the 
long  valley  rafter,  the  edge  bevel  for  the  top  being 
shown  at  o.  Draw  a  line  from  j  to  k  1,  the  point 
where  the  line  o  g  crosses  the  ridge  zp ;  then./  k  1 
is  the  length  of  the  short  valley  rafter,  the  edge 
bevel  for  the  same,  where  it  butts  against  the  long 
valley  rafter,  being  shown  at  k  1.  The  length  of 
the  jack  rafters  is  seen  at  4  5,  and  6  w,  the  edge 
bevel  for  the  same  being  shown  at  u\  To  find  the 
down  bevels  of  the  valley  rafter,  take  the  plan  of 
the  valley  rafter  i  h  for  a  base  line ;  from  h  draw 
the  line  xli;  square  from  i  li,  making  x  h  equal 
to  the  rise  of  the  roof  c  d  (Fig.  45)  ;  join  i  and  #, 
which  gives  the  elevation  of  the  valley  rafters, 
the  bevel  for  the  foot  being  shown  at  2,  and  the 
down  bevel  for  the  top  being  shown  at  x.  To  find 
the  length  and  down  bevels  of  the  rafters  for  the 
cross  roof,  take  g  p  for  a  base  line  ;  draw  the  line 
p  r  at  right  angles  with  p  g,  equal  to  the  rise  of  the 
cross  roof  e  b  (Fig.  45)  ;  join  ;•  and  g,  which  gives 
the  length  of  the  common  rafters  (when  there  are 
any,  as  when  the  building  is  made  in  the  form  of 
a  cross,  +)  ;  the  bevel  for  the  foot  of  the  common 
rafters  being  shown  at  g,  the  down  bevel  for  the 
top  of  the  common  rafters,  and  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  jack  rafters,  being  shown  at  r.  Lay  the 


MODERX  (1-ARPENTIIY  AND   BUILDING.  59 

length  oi  the  common  rafter  g  r  from  g  to  s  ;  ilraAV 
*  t  parallel  to  p  k  ;  draw  the  line  t  k  from  7r,  square 
with  the  line  kp;  then  draw  a  line  representing 
the  valley  rafter  from  g  through  the  point  t ;  then 
the  length  of  the  jack  rafters  is  shown  at  1,  2,  and 
3  i',  the  edge  bevels  for  the  same  being  shown  at 
v.  The  lengths  of  these  rafters  are  measured  on 
the  centre  line  of  the  edge  ;  and  from  these  lengths, 
half  of  the  thickness  of  the  ridge-piece,  or  half 
the  thickness  of  the  valley  rafter,  must  be  cut  off, 
as  may  be  necessary ;  the  amount  to  be  cut  off 
must  be  measured  square  from  the  bevel  on  the 
end  of  the  rafters,  so  that  if  the  ridge-piece  was 
two  inches  thick,  the  piece  which  would  be  cut  off 
would  be  one  inch  in  thickness. 

Sometimes  the  ridge  of  the  cross  roof  is  carried 
clear  through  from  z  to  p  ;  in  this  case  the  valley 
rafters  are  all  of  the  same  length.  The  plan  of 
them  would  be  g  k,  j  k,  i  in,  and  I  m,  their  actual 
length  being  g  t;  and  the  edge  bevel  of  the  top  of 
the  valley  rafters  is  the  angle  formed  by  the  lines 
(ft  and  st.  dgno  is  part  of  the  roof  laid  down 
flat,  the  edge  being  kept  even  with  d  g ;  now,  if 
n  o  is  raised  equal  to  c  d  (Fig.  45),  it  will  stand  just 
plumb  over/ h;  and  the  hip  rafter  o  g  will  stand 
plumb  over  the  plain  of  the  valley  hg.  gtsis  one 
side  of  the  cross  roof  laid  down  flat,  the  foot  of  the 
rafter  s  g  being  kept  even  at  g  ;  now,  if  t  s  is  raised 
the  he;ght  of  e  b  (Fig.  45),  the  end  s  of  the  rafter 


60  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

g  s  being  kept  plumb  over  the  plate  d  I,  then  *  t 
will  stand  plumb  over  k  p,  and  the  lines  o  g  and 
u  g  will  meet,  and  stand  plumb  over  7t  g  ;  the  points 
t  and  k  1  will  meet  plumb  over  k. 

The  line  of  the  top  side  of  the  jack  rafters  must 
run  to  the  centre  of  the  edge  of  the  valley  rafters ; 
and  bevelled  strips  may  be  nailed  along  on  each 
corner  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  valley  rafter,  so 
as  to  continue  the  slant  of  the  roof  from  the  end 
of  the  jack  rafters  to  the  centre  of  the  edge  of  the 
valley  rafters,  as  shown  at  y.  In  laying  out  such 
work  as  this,  it  is  well  to  draw  it  to  as  large  a  scale 
as  possible,  using  a  hard  pencil,  sharpened  fine,  and 
work  accurately :  since,  if  your  drawing  is  -^  size, 
a  variation  in  the  drawing  of  ^  of  an  inch  will 
cause  a  variation  of  f  of  an  inch  in  the  work ; 
errors  in  the  drawing  being  magnified  ten  times  in 
the  work. 

Plate  18.  Fig.  47  shows  a  frame  of  a  mansard  roof; 
a  being  the  studding  of  the  house,  b  the  ledger 
boards,  c  the  floorings,  d  the  plate  cf  the  house, 
e  the  mansard  rafter,  /  the  roof-plates,  g  the  rafter 
of  the  hip  roof ;  h  represents  pieces  of  plank 
fastened  to  the  studding,  being  boarded  across  and 
tinned  on  top,  the  gutter  being  nailed  to  the  out- 
side ends,  thus  forming  a  coving.  A  French  roof 
is  usually  formed  by  nailing  sweeps,  z,  which  are 
made  of  plank,  to  the  straight  rafters  e.  Fig.  48 


Plate  18. 


62  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   JtUILDJXG. 

shows  another  method  of  forming  a  French  roof. 
By  this  method  the  outside  studding  runs  to  the 
hip  roof,  the  sweeps  for  the  French  roof  being 
fastened  to  these  studs.  This  method  gives  rooms 
in  the  roof  of  the  same  size  as  those  in  the  story 
below  ;  and,  if  properly  proportioned,  it  makes  a 
very  good-looking  roof. 

Plate  19.  Fig.  49.  To  describe  the  corner  rafter  on 
a  French  roof.  —  Let  L  c  m  represent  the  plan  of  a 
corner  of  the  building,  which  in  this  case  is 
square.  Bisect  the  angle  L  c  m  (see  Plate  1,  Fig. 
2),  which  gives  the  line  g  c,  which  is  the  centre  line 
of  the  plan  of  the  rafter,  on  each  side  of  which  lay 
off  half  the  thickness  of  the  corner  rafter.  Draw 
the  line  c  b  square  with  the  line  L  c.  Measure  off 
from  the  line  L  c,  the  perpendicular  length  (not  the 
length  on  the  slant)  of  the  straight  rafter  e^  and 
draw  the  line  a  b  square  with  b  c.  On  this  line 
a  5,  measure  off  from  b  to /the  amount  which  the 
straight  rafter  tumbles  in.  Now  place  one  of 
the  common  curved  rafters  against  the  line  of  the 
straight  rafter  cf;  and,  keeping  the  bottom  of 
the  rafter  on  the  line  a  b,  mark  out  the  shape 
of  the  common  curved  rafter.  Now  draw  the  lines 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  parallel  to  b  c  from  various  points 
of  the  curve,  running  them  to  the  centre  line  of 
the  plan  of  the  angle  rafter  g  c.  Then  draw  these 
lines  square  from  the  line  g  c,  making  the  length 


Plate  19. 


f      b 


Jr 


v 


1     * 


64  MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

of  the  line  1  a  to  D  the  same  as  the  line  1  from  d 
to  the  line  L  c ;  and  making  the  line  2  a  the  same 
length  as  the  line  2  to  the  line  L  <?,  and  so  on. 
Draw  a  curved  line  from  D  through  these  points 
to  E,  which  gives  the  curve  of  the  edge  of  the 
angle  rafter  (from  E  to  c  will  be  straight).  Make 
D  A  the  length  of  d  a.  The  line  c  B  is  drawr 
from  the  point  c,  square  with  the  line  eg;  the  line 
c  B  being  drawn  the  length  of  cb.  Join  A  and  B, 
arid  we  have  the  shape  of  the  corner  of  the  roof 
plumb  down  from  the  top  of  the  straight  rafter  c. 
Line  5  runs  to  /,  the  foot  of  the  straight  rafter :  so 
the  line  5  a  will  determine  the  position  of  the  foot 
F  of  the  straight  angle  rafter.  The  line  6  runs 
from  e,  the  top  of  the  curved  rafter,  so  the  line  6  a 
will  run  to  E,  the  top  of  the  corner  curved  rafter. 
Then  the  shape  of  the  corner  curved  rafter  is  E  D 
A  F.  To  find  the  splay,  or  chamfer,  draw  lines 
parallel  to  1  a,  2  #,  etc.,  from  the  point  where  the 
lines  1,  2,  etc.,  pass  through  the  line  representing 
the  edge  of  the  rafter  g  c.  Also  draw  lines  square 
from  the  ends  of  1  #,  2  a,  etc.,  to  these  lines.  Now 
draw  a  curved  line  from  D  through  the  points  of 
intersection,  and  we  have  the  amount  necessary  to 
chamfer  the  rafter.  The  length  of  the  straight 
corner  rafter  is  from  c  to  F,  which  is  somewhat 
more  than  the  length  of  cf:  and  it  is  set  with  the 
centre  of  its  edge  exactly  even  with  the  corner  of 
the  building,  as  shown  in  Fig.  50  at  b;  1,  2  being 


MODERX  CARPENTRY  AXD    BUILD  I X^.  67 

the  sides  of  the  rafter,  a  b  c  being  a  plan  of  the 
corner  of  the  building,  and  R  being  the  curved 
rafter.  If  it  is  desired  not  to  chamfer  the  edge  of 
the  corner  curved  rafter,  it  must  be  sawed  on  the 
line  of  the  chamber  D#  ;  and  y  would  be  the  foot 
of  the  straight  rafter.  In  this  case,  the  straight 
rafter  must  be  set  with  its  corners  even  with  the 
edge  of  the  plate,  as  seen  at  5  6,  Fig.  50 ;  that 
is,  providing  the  thickness  of  the  corner  straight 
rafter  is  the  same  as  the  thickness  of  the  corner 
curved  rafter.  Should  the  straight  rafter  be 
thicker,  then  gauge  off  the  thickness  of  the  curved 
rafter  in  the  centre  of  the  edge  of  the  straight 
rafter,  and  let  the  lines  representing  the  thickness 
of  the  curved  rafter  come  even  with  the  edge  of 
the  plate,  as  seen  in  Fig.  50 ;  3  4  7  8  represents 
a  thick,  straight  rafter  5  6  being  the  thickness  of 
the  curved  rafter,  which  points  are  set  even  with 
the  edge  of  the  plate.  But  if  the  corner  curved 
rafter  is  chamfered,  then  the  corner  straight  rafter 
must  be  set  out  even  with  the  corner  6,  so  that  the 
points  5  6  would  be  in  the  place  occupied  by  1  '2 ; 
and  as  much  of  the  straight  rafter  as  is  above  the 
curved  rafter  must  be  chamfered  to  correspond 
with  the  chamfer  of  the  curved  rafter.  This  rule 
applies  for  external  and  internal  angles,  whether 
they  be  acute,  obtuse,  or  right  angles.  One  thing, 
however,  must  be  observed :  that  is,  the  rafter 
must  be  stayed  from  the  building  at  the  angle  eg, 


68  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   JiUILDJNG. 

found  by  bisecting  the  angle  formed  by  one  corner 
of  the  building.  Otherwise,  it  will  not  coincide 
with  the  line  of  the  roof  on  both  sides.  This  rule 
is  also  used  for  getting  the  angle  brackets  for  large 
cornices,  where  they  are  lathed  and  plastered,  and 
for  getting  the  angle  rafters  for  groined  arches, 
etc. 

Plate  2O  represents  three  different  forms  of  trusses. 
Fig.  51  represents  the  form  of  a  truss  suitable  for  a 
span  of  thirty  or  forty  feet.  Fig.  52  represents 
the  form  of  a  truss  suitable  for  a  span  of  forty  or 
fifty  feet.  Fig.  53  represents  the  form  of  a  truss 
suitable  for  a  span  of  about  seventy  feet.  These 
trusses  are  sometimes  made  with  greater  span  than 
is  here  given. 

Plate  21.  Fig.  54  represents  the  form  of  truss  suita- 
ble for  short  bridges,  etc. ;  the  bottom  timber  rest- 
ing on  abutments  at  A  and  B.  The  shaded  pieces 
should  be  made  of  well-seasoned  hard  wood,  or 
cast-iron.  This  form  of  truss  is  also  used  for 
supporting  roofs  of  great  span,  as  in  halls  and 
churches;  the  roof  being  supported  from  the  truss 
by  struts,  etc. 

Plate  22  represents  the  framing  of  a  small  spire  ; 
Fig.  55  being  the  elevation,  and  Fig.  56  the  plan, 
of  the  spire.  The  rafters  are  sawed  square  on  the 


Plate  20. 


Sl. 


UNIVERSITY  B 


Plate  22. 


71 


7'2  MODEliX  CAKPEXTKY  A\I>    K 

edge  at  the  top,  and  are  fastened  to  the  piece  C  by 
wooden  pins,  giving  chance  to  bore  down  through 
C  for  a  vane  or  finial.  This  is  a  much  simpler  way 
than  to  mitre  the  rafters  together  at  the  top.  The 
backing  (shown  at  <•)  is  found  as  described  in 
Plate  15,  Fig.  42. 

Plate  23  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  forms 
of  the  boards  for  boarding  a  dome  roof  horizon- 
tally. Fig.  57  is  a  plan  of  the  boarding  of  the 
dome,  and  Fig.  58  is  the  elevation  of  the  same. 
As  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  58,  the  principle  is  the 
same  as  finding  the  envelopes  of  truncated  cones. 
(See  Plate  7,  Fig.  21.) 

Plate  24  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  form  of 
the  boards  for  boarding  a  dome  roof  vertically. 
Fig.  59  shows  the  elevation  of  the  dome  ;  and  Fig. 
60  is  the  plan  of  the  same,  the  circumference  of 
which  we  divide  into  spaces  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  boards  to  be  used,  a  b  C  (Fig.  60)  is  the  plan 
of  one  of  these  boards.  The  length  of  one  of 
these  boards  is  B  C,  Fig.  59,  which  we  divide  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts.  Then  from  a  6,  Fig. 
60,  lay  off  the  same  number  of  these  spaces  to  e. 
Then,  from  these  points  of  division  in  Fig.  59, 
drop  lines  to  the  line  A  B,  Fig.  60.  Then,  with  C 
for  a  centre,  carry  these  lines  across  the  plan  of 
the  board,  as  seen  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  Then  take  the 


Plate  23. 


Plate  24. 


74 


MODERN    CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING.  77 

width  of  the  board  on  the  plan  at  1,  and  lay  it  off 
at  1  a.  Take  the  width  on  the  plan  at  2,  and  lay 
it  off  at  2  a,  and  so  on.  Then  draw  a  curved  line 
from  c  through  these  points  to  «,  and  also  from  c 
through  these  points  to  b.  The  result  gives  the 
shape  of  the  boards. 

Plate  25  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  rake 
moulding  to  fit  any  gutter  ;  also  the  method  of 
finding  the  level  moulding  to  fit  the  rake.  Fig. 
61  represents  the  gutter,  Fig.  62  is  the  rake 
moulding,  and  Fig.  63  is  the  level  moulding.  To 
find  the  shape  of  the  rake  moulding:  From  the 
gutter  to  be  used,  saw  off  a  piece  half  an  inch 
long ;  lay  this  piece  on  a  smooth  board,  and  mark 
around  it,  as  seen  in  Fig.  61.  Then,  from  the 
upper,  outer  point  of  the  gutter,  draw  the  line  a  a, 
giving  the  pitch  of  the  roof.  Then  through  sever- 
al prominent  points  in  the  outline  of  the  gutter, 
draw  lines  parallel  to  the  first  line,  as  b  £,  c  c,  etc. 
Then  from  the  face  of  the  fillet  draw  the  ver- 
tical line  A  B.  Then  for  the  rake  draw  the  line 
A  B,  Fig.  62,  at  right  angles  with  the  pitch  of  the 
roof.  Take  the  distance  from  a  to  the  line  A  B, 
Fig.  61,  measured  square  across,  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  line,  and  lay  it  off  from  the  line  A  B, 
Fig.  62,  parallel  with  the  slant  of  the  roof.  Do 
the  same  with  the  other  points.  Then  draw  a  line 
through  these  points,  which  gives  the  shape  of  the 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.  79 

rake  moulding.  Then,  to  get  the  shape  of  the  level 
moulding,  take  the  distance  from  a  to  the  line  A 
B,  Fig.  61,  and  lay  it  off  square  from  the  line  A  B, 
Fig.  63,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  Do  the 
same  with  the  other  points.  Then  draw  a  line 
through  these  points,  which  gives  the  shape  of  the 
level  moulding. 

Plate  26  shows  mitre  boxes  for  rake  mouldings. 
Fig.  64  shows  a  box  with  cuts  for  mitring  the 
rake  moulding  to  the  gutter.  The  angle  across 
the  top  of  the  box  is  the  mitre.  (See  Plate  36.) 
The  angles  on  the  sides  of  the  box  are  the  same 
as  the  down  bevel  at  the  top  of  the  rafters.  In 
sawing,  keep  nearest  you  the  side  of  the  boxes 
shown  in  the  cut.  Place  the  moulding  upside 
down  in  the  box,  keeping  the  moulded  side  toward 
you,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65 ;  taking  care  to  have  the 
bevel  of  the  moulding  at  c  fit  well  against  the  side 
of  the  box.  Let  a  5,  Fig.  64,  represent  a  piece 
of  rake  moulding  ;  cut  the  mitre  at  #,  in  the  end  of 
the  box  just  above  it,  letting  the  moulding  lay  the 
same  as  the  line  a  b.  The  mitre  on  the  end  a  will 
fit  the  mitre  of  the  gutter  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  gable.  Cut  the  mitre  at  c?,  in  the  end  of 
the  box  just  above  d,  holding  the  moulding  as 
before  described.  The  mitre  on  the  end  d  will  fit 
the  mitre  of  the  gutter  on  the  left  side  of  the 
gable.  To  mitre  the  rake  mouldings  together  at 


80 


MODERN  CARPENTltY  AND   BUILDING.  81 

the  top,  the  box  shown  in  Fig.  66  is  used.  The 
angles  on  the  top  of  the  box  are  the  same  as  the 
down  bevel  at  the  top  of  the  rafters,  the  sides 
being  sawed  down  square.  Place  the  moulding  in 
the  box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  67,  keeping  the  bevel  at 
c  flat  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  having  the 
moulded  side  toward  you.  The  moulding  a  b,  Fig. 
64,  is  turned  end  for  end,  which  brings  it  the 
other  edge  up,  a  5,  Fig.  66 ;  and  the  mitre  for 
the  top  is  cut  on  the  end  b  in  the  end  of  the  box 
just  above  it,  which  completes  the  moulding  for 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  gable.  The  mitre  for  the 
top  of  the  moulding  for  the  left  side  of  the  gable 
is  cut  on  the  end  c  of  the  moulding  c  d,  in  the  end 
of  the  box  just  above  c. 

When  the  rake  moulding  is  made  of  the  proper 
form,  these  boxes  are  very  convenient ;  but  a 
great  deal  of  the  machine-made  mouldings  are  not 
of  the  proper  form  to  fit  the  gutter.  In  such 
cases,  the  moulding  should  be  altered  to  the  proper 
form  if  they  come  very  bad ;  although  many  use 
the  mouldings  as  they  come,  and  trim  the  mitres 
so  as  to  make  them  do. 

Plate  27.  Pig.  68  represents  a  plan  of  a  flight  of 
stairs,  with  a  wind  at  the  top.  Plate  28,  Fig.  69, 
is  a  more  detailed  plan  of  the  wind  ;  and  Plate  29, 
Fig.  71,  is  an  elevation  of  the  winding  posts  show- 
ing the  position  of  the  mortises  and  risers.  The 


82  MODEItX   CARPENTKX    AND   BUILDING. 

lettering  on  these  different  cuts  is  the  same  for 
each  part  of  the  work :  b  is  the  face  stringer,  or 
carriage ;  a  is  the  newel  post ;  c  is  the  winding 
post;  e  is  the  post  at.  the  upper  landing,  and  is 
cut  away  so  as  to  hook  on  to  the  upper  floor,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  69;  d  is  a  short  piece  of  stringer, 
connecting  the  two  posts  c  and  e ;  f  is  the  skirt- 
ing-board, which  is  fastened  ,to  the  trimmer,  and 
makes  a  finish  of  the  well-room.  The  risers  1  and 
4  are  tenoned  into  the  post  c,  as  shown  in  Fig.  68. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  rise  is  seven  inches : 
then  the  top  of  riser  1  is  seven  inches  above  the 
mortise,  for  the  face-stringer  b.  (See  also  Fig.  71.) 
The  top  of  riser  4  is  twenty-one  inches  above 
riser  1.  The  top  of  riser  4,  and  the  piece  of 
stringer  d,  are  even.  The  top  of  riser  5  is  seven 
inches  above  c?,  or  riser  4.  The  width  of  the 
winding  steps  are  alike,  when  measured  on  a  cir- 
cle, struck  from  the  winding  post  c,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  68  at  1,  2,  3,  4.  The  face  and  centre  stringers 
are  usually  made  of  two-inch  plank.  The  wall- 
stringer  is  often  made  of  a  good  stout  inch  board. 
The  winding  risers  are  made  four  or  five  inches 
wider  than  the  others ;  the  extra  width  projecting 
below  the  preceding  riser,  so  as  to  afford  a  good 
nailing  for  the  pieces  of  plank,  1  a,  2  a,  3  a,  some- 
times called  chocks,  and  the  piece  of  stringer  d  2. 
.  The  bottom  step  is  frequently,  as  it  is  in  this  case, 
made  a  couple  of  inches  wider  than  the  rest  of 


Plate  27. 


Plate  28. 


84 


{  UNIVERSITY  ] 


MODKJiX  CAHPE \T11Y   AXD    JWJLD/XU.  87 

the  steps.  The  risers  are  mitred  into  the  face- 
stringer  (and  in  laying  out  the  face-stringer  do 
not  forget  to  allow  for  this),  and  are  grooved  to 
receive  the  tongue  of  the  steps,  as  seen  in  Plate 
30,  Fig.  72.  The  ends  of  the  steps  are  returned 
on  the  face-stringer,  and  a  scotia  moulding  is 
mitred  around  beneath.  The  steps  and  risers  are 
generally  grooved  to  receive  the  base,  which  is 
tongued  to  fit;  but  a  very  cheap  flight  of  stairs 
might  be  built  with  the  wall-stringer  nailed  to  the 
base,  the  steps  and  risers  being  butted  against 
the  base. 

Fig.  70  shows  the  manner  of  laying  out  a  stair- 
stringer,  by  taking  the  width  of  the  step  on  the 
blade  of  the  square,  and  taking  the  rise  on  the 
tongue  of  the  square ;  r  being  the  risers,  and  * 
being  the  steps.  Steps  will  generally  finish  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  wider  than  the  width  of  step 
on  the  stringer. 

Plate  3O.  Fig.  73  shows  how  to  find  the  length 
of  opening  in  the  floor,  to  give  sufficient  head- 
room for  the  stairs.  Suppose  that  the  story  is  9 
feet  in  the  clear,  and  the  upper  flooring,  lathing, 
and  plastering,  etc.,  is  13  inches:  then  the  stairs 
must  be  9  feet  +  13  inches  =  10  feet  1  inch,  from 
top  to  bottom,  that  is,  121  inches.  Now,  if  we 
assume  7  inches  for  the  rise,  we  have  17|  risers. 
Since  we  must  have  a  whole  number  of  risers,  we 


Plate  29. 


Plate  30. 


f 


J 


Fij.73. 


(JO  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

will  adopt  17  as  the  number  of  risers,  then  the 
exact  width  of  riser  is  121  -=- 17  =  7-^y  inches, 
practically,  7J  inches.  We  will  make  our  steps  0 
inches  on  the  stringer ;  but  they  will  finish  nearly 
an  inch  wider,  owing  to  their  projecting  beyond 
the  riser. 

Now  the  rise  being  7 \  inches,  we  rind  that  when 
we  have  ascended  3  risers,  that  is,  21 1  inches,  we 
have  7  feet  2|  inches  head-room.  Now  counting 
out  from  the  top  of  the  stairs,  we  find  that  this 
point  is  the  width  of  14  steps  from  the  top,  which 
is  14x9  inches  =  126  inches  =  10  feet  6  inches. 
So  with  an  opening  of  10  feet  6  inches,  we  have 
7  feet  2 1  inches  head-room.  If  we  can  do  with 

o 

less  head-room,  we  ascend  another  riser,  which 
takes  us  up  28^  inches,  leaving  us  still  a  head- 
room of  6  feet  11  inches ;  this  is  at  a  point  the 
width  of  13  steps  from  the  top,  which  is  13x9 
inches  =:  117  inches  =  9  feet  9  inches :  so  that, 
with  an  opening  9  feet  9  inches  in  length,  we  still 
have  6  feet  7^-  inches  head-room.  The  opening 
might  be  still  further  reduced  in  length,  if  neces- 
sary, by  narrowing  the  steps  an  inch  or  so. 

We  have  said  nothing  about  hand-rails,  as  there 
are  firms  of  stair-builders  in  every  large  city  who 
can  furnish  rails,  posts,  and  balusters  —  by  sending 
them  a  sketch  of  the  stairs  (similar  to  Plate  27,  in 
this  book),  giving  the  width  of  the  staircase,  and 
the  widtli  of  the  riser  and  step,  measured  on  the 


92  MODEKX  CARPEXTHY  AXD   HVILDIXG. 

stringer  —  a  great  deal  cheaper  than  an   inexperi- 
enced man  can  make  them. 

Plate  31.  Fig.  74  shows  a  method  of  eight-squaring 
a  stick  of  square  timber.  Lay  a  two-foot  square  or 
rule  on  the  side  of  the  timber,  keeping  both  ends 
of  one  edge  even  with  the  edges  of  the  timber; 
mark  off  at  7  and  17  inches ,  gauge  off  on  all 
sides  of  the  timber  the  distance  in  that  these 
points  come  from  the  edge,  and  it  gives  the  lines 
to  hew  by.  At  a  is  shown  the  end  of  the  timber. 

A  board  may  be  divided  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts  in  a  similar  manner.  If  it  is  desired 
to  divide  the  board  into  10  equal  parts,  have 
the  corner  of  the  square  even  with  one  edge  of 
the  board,  and  have  20  inches  come  even  with  the 
other  edge ;  then  mark  off  every  2  inches.  If  7 
parts  were  desired,  make  21  inches  even  with  the 
other  edge,  instead  of  20  inches,  and  mark  off 
every  3  inches  instead  of  every  2  inches. 

Figs.  75  and  76  illustrate  a  very  simple  and 
also  a  very  accurate  method  of  fitting  down 
thresholds.  Take  any  board  5  or  6  inches  wide,  as 
6,  Fig.  75,  and  2  or  3  inches  longer  than  the  width 
of  the  doorway  d.  Lay  this  board  on  the  floor, 
keeping  the  edge  of  the  board  one  inch  from  the 
door-frame ;  lay  a  short  straight-edge  (2  feet 
square)  against  the  door-jamb,  and  mark  on  the 
board  where  it  crosses ;  also  lay  it  against  the 


1)4  MODERN  CARPENTRY  A XI)   BUILDING. 

rebate  of  the  jamb,  and  mark  on  the  board  where 
it  crosses;  repeat  the  operation  on  the  other  door- 
jamb.  Now  draw  back  this  board,  and  substitute 
the  threshold  in  the  place  of  the  door-frame,  keep- 
ing the  upper  corner  of  the  threshold  one  inch 
from  the  edge  of  the  board,  as  seen  in  the  shaded 
section  in  Fig.  76  ;  and  continue  the  lines  from 
the  board  b  on  to  the  threshold  t.  Now  all  that 
remains  to  be  done  is  to  gauge  on  to  the  threshold 
the  depth  of  the  rebate.  If  carefully  done,  the 
threshold  will  be  a  perfect  fit  every  time.  A  hard 
pencil  sharpened  fine,  or,  better  still,  a  knife, 
should  be  used  in  marking. 

Fig.  77  represents  a  round  chimney  or  flagstaff, 
a,  passing  through  a  slanting  roof:  the  shape  of  the 
opening  in  the  roof  will  be  oval,  as  shown  at  c. 

Plate  32  shows  the  mitring  of  straight  and  circular 
mouldings.  Fig.  78  shows  four  circular  mould- 
ings, mitred  together  so  as  to  form  one  mould- 
ing, as  shown  at  A.  The  centres  of  all  these 
mouldings  come  together  at  a.  The  mitre  joint 
where  1  and  2  come  together  is  a  straight  line, 
b  a.  The  mitre  where  2  and  4  come  together 
is  a  curved  line,  one  end  of  which  is  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  edges  of  the  moulding  at  c;  the 
other  end  is  at  the  intersection  of  the  centre  lines 
at  a;  the  amount  of  curvature  is  found  by  the 
intersection  of  lines  e  and  /,  running  midway  be- 


Plate  33 


98  MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    KVILDINtt. 

tween  the  centres  and  the  outsides  of  these  mould- 
ings, the  intersections  being  at  d.  Now,  with  these 
three  points,  «,  d,  and  <?,  find  the  centre  of  a  circle, 
the  circumference  of  which  will  pasa  through  them. 
(See  Fig.  9,  Plate  3.)  Figs.  79  and  81  are  other 
illustrations  of  the  mitring  of  straight  and  circu- 
lar mouldings.  The  intersection  of  the  outsides 
at  a  and  <?,  and  the  intersection  of  the  centre  lines 
at  6,  give  three  points,  with  which  find  a  centre 
as  before.  Fig.  80  shows  a  wide  and  a  narrow 
strip  of  board  mitred  together :  the  intersection  of 
the  outsides  gives  the  angle  of  the  mitre.  It 
should  be  remarked  that  the  mouldings  in  Figs.  78 
and  79  must  be  the  same  shape  each  side  of  the 
centres,  such  as  are  called  double  mouldings. 

Plate  33  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  bevels  for 
a  hopper-box  having  butt  joints.  Fig.  82 :  a  b  c 
d  is  the  plan  of  the  top  of  the  box,  and  efg  li  is 
the  plan  of  the  bottom.  Fig.  83 :  A  B  is  the  line 
of  the  bottom  of  the  box ;  a  b  is  the  slant  of  the 
sides,  which  line  continue  indefinitely  toward  c. 
Draw  the  line  d  b  at  right  angles  with  a  b.  At 
any  point  on  the  line  A  B,  as  at/",  drop  a  perpen- 
dicular line  until  it  intersects  the  line  a  c.  Now 
withy  as  a  centre,  and  a  radius  tangent  to  the  line 
a  c,  cut  the  line  A  B  at  h;  join  he;  at  /*  is  the 
bevel  to  cut  the  sides.  Then,  again,  with  f  as  a 
centre,  and  a  radius  tangent  to  b  d,  cut  the  line 


MODE11X  CAltPEXTKY  AM>    Ill'ILDIXU.  99 

AB  cfit  //.     Join  f/c;  at  g  is  the  bevel  to  cut  the 
edges,  the  stock  being  jointed  square  on  the  edges. 

Plate  34  shows  the  method  of  finding  the  bevels 
for  a  hopper-box  with  mitre  joints.  Fig.  84 :  a  b  c 
d  is  the  plan  of  the  top  of  the  box,  and  efgh  is 
the  plan  of  the  bottom.  Fig.  85:  Let  a  b  c  be 
one  corner  of  the  plan  of  the  box,  and  b  d  be  the 
slant  of  the  side.  Draw  the  line  df  at  right 
angles  with  the  slant  of  the  side  b  d.  Bisect  the 
angle  a  b  c,  getting  the  line  b  e,  which  would  be 
the  mitre  for  the  edges  if  the  sides  were  perpen- 
dicular ;  but  as  the  sides  slant,  the  correct  mitre 
is  found  by  erecting  a  perpendicular  on  the  line 
b «?,  as  at  7i,  continuing  it  until  it  intersects  the 
line  b  e.  Now,  with  h  as  a  centre,  and  a  radius 
tangent  to  b  f,  cut  b  c  at  g.  Join  y  e.  At  y  is  the 
mitre  for  the  edge.  Then  with  h  as  a  centre,  and 
a  radius  tangent  to  b  d,  cut  the  line  b  c  at  c.  Now 
join  c  e.  At  e  we  have  the  bevel  to  cut  the  sides. 

Plate  35.  Fig.  86  is  an  elevation  of  a  splayed  cir- 
cular-top window.  Fig.  87  shows  the  method  of 
finding  the  form  of  a  board  to  spring  around  the 
splayed  circular  top  on  the  inside,  the  princi- 
ple being  the  same  as  finding  the  envelope  of  a 
truncated  cone  (See  Plate  7,  Fig.  21)  ;  the  bevel 
of  the  sides  being  continued  till  they  intersect  at 
«,  which  is  the  point  to  use  as  a  centre,  to  describe 
the  form  of  the  board. 


Plate  34. 


100 


Plate  35. 


BUILDER'S    ESTIMATES. 


Stone-work  is  estimated  by  the  perch ;  24f  cubic  feet 
making  one  perch.  An  18-inch  wall,  1  foot  high,  and 
16 J  feet  long,  contains  one  perch. 

Brick-icork.  —  Bricks  are  usually  estimated  at  25  to  the 
cubic  foot.  They  usually  lay  5  courses  to  each  foot  in 
height. 

For  an  8-inch  wall,  allow  17  bricks  for  each  square  foot 
of  surface.  For  a  12-inch  wall,  allow  25  bricks  for  each 
square  foot  of  surface.  For  a  16-inch  wall,  allow  34 
bricks  for  each  square  foot  of  surface. 

Chimneys. 


SIZE    OF   CHIMNEY. 

NO.  OF 
FLUES. 

SIZE   OF  FLUES. 

NO.  OF  BRICKS 
PER   FOOT   IN 
HEIGHT. 

1C  X  10  inches 

1 

8X8  inches 

30 

16  X  24 

1 

8X1G       " 

40 

16  x  28       " 

2 

8X8       " 

50 

16  x  40 

3 

SX    8 

70 

16  x  52 

4 

SX    8       " 

90 

20  X  20 

1 

12X12       " 

40 

20  X  24       " 

1 

12X16       " 

45 

102 


MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING.         103 

The  above  does  not  include  waste,  which  must  be 
allowed. 

Mortar  for  Brick-work. — One  cask  of  good  lime  to  a 
load  (about  20  bushels)  of  sand  is  sufficient  for  1,000  or 
1,100  bricks. 

Cement  for  Cellar  Bottoms  should  be  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  of  cement  to  3  of  gravel,  and  should  be  laid 
3  inches  thick.  One  cask  of  cement  will  cover  5  or  6 
square  yards. 

Plasterers'  Mortar.  —  One  cask  of  lime  to  a  load  (20 
bushels)  of  sand,  and  2  bushels  of  hair,  will  cover  about 
50  square  yards  of  surface  ;  and  J  cask  of  lime  will  skim 
the  same.  In  estimating  the  surface  to  be  covered,  plas- 
terers deduct  only  half  the  area  of  openings,  such  as 
doors  and  windows,  from  the  square  yards  in  the  walls. 

TIMBERS. 

Timbers  for  a  Light  Frame.  —  Sills,  4x6  or  6x6 
inches.  Flooring-timbers,  2x6  inches,  put  from  16  to 
22  inches  apart.  Posts,  3x5  inches.  Ledger-boards, 
1x6  inches,  well  fitted  and  nailed.  •  Studding,  2x3 
inches,  put  16  inches  to  centres.  Plates,  3x4  inches. 
Rafters,  2x5  inches,  put  2  feet  apart.  Partition  stud- 
ding, 2x3  and  strapping  1x3  inches,  put  16  inches  to 
centres. 

Timbers  for  a  Medium  Frame. — Sills,  6x7,  7x8, 
or  8x8  inches.  Flooring  timbers,  2x8.  9,  or  10  inches, 


104         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

put  1C  or  18  inches  apart,  and  bridged.  Posts,  4x6  or 
4x8  inches.  Studding,  2x4  inches,  put'16  inches  to 
centres.  Window  and  door  studs,  3x4,  or  4  x  4  inches. 
Ledger-boards,  1  x  7  or  8  inches,  well  fitted  and  nailed, 
or  girts  4  or  5x7  or  8  inches.  Plates,  3x4  inches. 
Rafters,  2xG  inches,  put  2.  feet  apart.  Main  partition 
studs  2x4  inches;  other  partitions,  2x3  inches,  put  12 
or  16  inches  to  centres. 

Timbers  for  a  Good  Heavy  Frame  for  Dwelling- House. 
—  Sills,  8x8  or  8x10  inches.  Flooring  timbers,  first 
story,  2x12  inches;  second  story,  2x10  inches;  third 
story,  2x8  inches,  put  16  or  18  inches  apart,  and  well 
bridged.  Side  girts,  5x8  inches.  End  girts,  6  x  S 
inches.  Outside  studding,  2x5  inches,  put  12  or  16 
inches  to  centres.  Window  and  door  studs,  3x5  inches. 
Rafters,  2x8  inches,  put  20  or  24  inches  apart.  Main 
partitions,  2x5  inches ;  other  partitions,  2x4  inches, 
put  12  or  16  inches  to  centres. 

To  square  the  sills  of  a  house,  make  a  mark  on  the 
upper  outside  edge  of  the  side  sill  8  feet  from  the  corner 
of  the  house,  and  6  feet  from  the  corner  of  the  house  on 
the 'end  sill ;  when  the  sills  are  square,  a  10- foot  pole  will 
just  reach  across  from  point  to  point. 

Framing  and  Boarding.  —  To  estimate  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  boards  required  to  board  a  building,  and 
lay  the  under  floors,  double  the  length,  and  also  the 
width  of  the  building ;  add  these  amounts,  which  gives 
the  length  around  the  building ;  multiply  this  by  the 
length  of  the  outside  studding,  which  gives  the  square 


MODKHX  CARPENTJIY  AXJJ    r.riLDIXtr.         107 

feet  in  the  walls  of  the  house.  If  the  house  has  a  pitch 
roof,  multiply  the  width  of  the  house  by  the  rise  of  th0 
roof:  the  result  will  be  the  square  feet  in  2  gables. 
Then,  to  find  the  square  feet  in  the  roof :  to  the  length  of 
the  house,  add  the  amount  of  projection  at  both  ends 
(generally  about  18  inches  at  each  end,  which  makes  3 
feet  to  be  added),  which  amount  multiply  by  twice  the 
total  length  of  the  rafters,  which  gives  the  square  feet  in 
the  roof.  Then  for  the  floors,  multiply  the  length  of  the 
building  by  the  width,  and  multiply  this  by  the  number  of 
floors,  which  gives  the  square  feet  in  all  of  the  floors. 
Add  together  these  different  amounts,  and  add  £  for 
waste,  which  will  give  the  number  of  square  feet  required. 
In  estimating  the  labor  in  framing  and  boarding,  some 
builders  reckon  eight  or  ten  dollars  per  thousand  feet. 

TABLE  OF  BRACES. 

UUN.  LENGTH   OF   BRACE. 

2ft.  3  in.  x  2  ft.  3in 3  ft.  2,^  in. 

2ft.  Gin.  x  2ft.  6  in 3ft.  6^- in. 

2ft,  Din.  X2  ft.  9  in 3  ft.  lOf  &  in. 

3ft.  0  in.  X  3ft.  0  in 4ft.  2£  -;&  in 

3ft.  3  in.  X  3  ft.  3  in 4ft.  7i  •&  in 

3ft.  Gin.  x  3  ft.  6  in 4ft.  Hi  in. 

3ft,  U  in.  x  3  ft.  9  in 5ft.  3^  in. 

4ft.  0  in.  X4  ft.  Oin 5ft.  75  in. 

4ft.  3  in.  x 4  ft.  3  in 6ft.  Oi  in. 

4ft.  6  in.  x  4ft.  G  in 6ft.  4|  in. 

4ft.  9  in.  x  4  ft.  9  in 6ft.  S£in. 

oft.  Oin.  x  5  ft  Oin 7ft.  OH!  ih  in. 

1ft,  6  in.  x  2  ft.  Oin 2ft.  6  in. 

3  ft.  0  in.  X4  ft.  0  in.          .  .  .  5  ft.  0  in. 


108 


MODEJ1X  CARPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING. 


BOARD,   PLANK,   AND   SCANTLING  MEASURE. 

Width. 

lln. 

2  In. 

3  In. 

4  In. 

5  In. 

6  In. 

7  In.       8  In.        9  In. 

2X2 

2X3 

2X4       oX3 

Ft. 
f  1 

Ft.  In. 
0    1 

Ft.  In. 
0    2 

Ft.  In. 

0    3 

Ft.  In. 
0    4 

Ft.  In. 

0     5 

Ft.  In. 

0     6 

Ft.  In. 

0    7 

Ft.  In. 

0    8 

Ft.  In. 

0     9 

2 

0    2 

0    4 

0     6 

0     8 

0  10 

1     0 

1     2 

1     4 

1     6 

3 

0    3 

0    6 

0    9 

0 

1     3 

1     6 

1    9 

2    0 

2     3 

3£ 

0    3 

0    7 

0  10 

2 

1     5 

1     9 

2    0 

2     4 

2     7 

4 

0     4 

0    8 

0 

4 

1     8 

2    0 

2    4 

2     8 

3    0 

4* 

0    4 

0    9 

1 

6 

1  10 

2    3 

2     7 

3    0 

3    4 

5 

0     5 

0  10 

3 

8 

2     1 

2     6 

2  11 

3    4 

3     9 

5| 

0     5 

0  11 

4 

10 

2    3 

2    9 

3     2 

3     8 

4     1 

6 

0     6 

1     0 

6 

2    0 

2     6 

3    0 

3     6 

4    0 

4     6 

6£ 

0    6 

1     1 

7 

2     2 

2    8 

3    3 

3    9 

4    4 

4  10 

7 

0     7 

1     2 

9 

2     4 

2  11 

3     6 

4     1 

4    8 

5    3 

7* 

0     7 

3 

10 

2     6 

3     1 

3    9 

4    4 

5    0 

5     7 

8 

0     8 

4 

2    0 

2     8 

34       40 

4    8 

5    4 

6    0 

»i 

0     8 

5 

2     1 

2  10 

36       43 

4  11 

5    8 

6    4 

9 

0    9 

6 

2    3 

3    0 

3    9 

4    6 

5    3 

6    0 

6     9 

9£ 

0    9 

7 

2    4 

3    2 

3  11 

4    9 

5    6 

6    4 

7     1 

10 

0  10 

8 

2    6 

3    4 

4    2 

5    0 

5  10 

6     8 

7     6 

a 

10£ 

0  10 

9 

2    7 

3    6 

4    4 

5    3 

6     1 

7     0 

7  10 

!• 

11 

0  11 

10 

2    9 

3    8 

4    7 

5     6 

6     5 

7    4 

8    3 

j 

111 

0  11 

11 

2  10 

3  10 

4    9 

5    9 

6     8 

7    8 

8     7 

M 

12 

1     0 

2    0 

3    0 

4    0 

5    0 

6    0 

7     0 

8    0 

9     0 

12* 

1    0 

2     1 

3    1 

4     2 

5    2 

6    3 

7     3 

8    4 

9    4 

13 

1   1 

2    2 

3    3 

4    4 

5    5 

6     6 

7    7 

8     8 

9     9 

13£ 

1   1 

2     3 

3    4 

4     6 

5    7 

6    9 

7  10 

9    0 

10     1 

14 

1     2 

2    4 

3    6 

4    8 

5  10 

7     0 

8    2 

9    4 

10    6 

141 

1     2 

2     5 

3     7 

4  10 

6    0 

7     3 

8    5 

9     8 

10  10 

15 

1     3 

2    6 

3    9 

5    0 

6     3 

7     6 

8     9 

10    0 

11    3 

15| 

1     3 

2     7 

3  10 

5    2 

6     5 

7     9 

9    0 

10    4 

11     7 

16         1    4 

2    8 

4    0 

5    4 

6     8 

8    0 

9    4 

10     8 

12    0 

16£ 

1     4 

2     9 

4     1 

5    6 

6  10 

8    3 

9    7 

11     0 

12    4 

17 

1     5 

2  10 

4    3 

5     8 

7     1 

8    6 

9  11 

11    4 

12    9 

174 

1     5 

2  11 

4    4 

5  10 

7    3 

8    9 

10    2 

11     8 

13    1 

18 

1     6 

3    0 

4    6 

6    0 

7    6 

9     0 

10     6 

12    0 

13    6 

18£ 

1     6 

3     1 

4    7 

6    2 

7    8 

9    3 

10    9 

12    4 

13  10 

19 

1     7 

3    2 

4    9 

6    4 

7  11 

9    6 

11     1 

12    8 

14    3 

19£ 

1     7 

3    3 

4  10 

6     6 

8     1 

9     9 

11     4 

13    0 

14    7 

120 

1    8 

3    4 

5     0 

6     8 

8    4 

10    0 

11     8 

13    4 

15     0 

If  it  be  desired  to  find  the  square  feet  in  a  board  which  is  longer  than  20 
feet,  take  the  square  feet  in  two  s  iorter  boards,  the  added  lengths  of  which 
are  equal  to  the    ength  of  the  board  which  you  wish  to  measure;    for  in- 
stance, if  the  board  be  26  feet    ong   by  19   inches  wide,  add   together  the 

square  feet  in  a  20-foot  and  a  6-foot    mard,  each  19 

nches  wide  :  31  feet  8 

inches  +  9  feet  6  inches  =  41  feet  2  inches. 

M Ol) ERX   <  'A RPEX 7 7,'  Y   AXD   B I  '1L 


109 


BOARD,   PLANK,    AND   SCANTLING    MEASURE  — 

Continued. 

!  Wi.lth. 

10  In.     11  In. 

12  In.     lain.     14  In. 

lf>  In. 

It,  In.      17  In. 

18  In. 

2X5 

2X6 

3X-* 

2X7 

3X5 

2X8 
4X4 

2  X  9 
3X6 

Ft. 

Ft.  In.  Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In.    Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

f    1          0  10       0  11 

1      0 

1     1 

1     2 

1     3 

14        15 

1     15 

2     i     1     8       1  10 

2     0 

2    2 

2    4 

2     G 

28        2  10 

3    0 

3         -J    r,       2    9 

3    0 

3    3 

3    6 

3    9 

40        43 

4     6 

34 

2  11       3    2 

3     6 

3    9 

4     1 

4     4 

48        4  11 

.")    3 

4 

:\    4 

3     8 

4    0 

4     4 

4     8 

5    0 

54        58 

I)     0 

44 

3    9 

4     1 

4     6 

4  10 

5    3 

.5     7 

6     0 

6    4 

6     9 

5 

4     2 

4    7 

5     0 

5     5 

5  10 

6    3 

6     8 

7     1 

7     6 

5J 

4     7 

f>     0 

5     6 

5  11 

6    5 

6  10 

74        79 

8     3 

6 

5     0 

5     6 

6    0 

6    6 

7    0 

7     6 

80        86 

9     0 

6| 

5     5 

5  11 

6     6 

7    0 

7    7 

8     1 

8     8  !     9     2 

9     9 

5  10 

6     5 

7     0 

7     7 

8    2 

8    9 

'.»     4        9  11 

10     6 

7i 

6     3 

6  10 

7     6 

8    1 

8    9 

9     4 

10     0 

10     7 

11     3 

8' 

6    8 

7     4 

8    0 

8    8 

9    4 

10     0 

ID     s      11     4 

12     0 

8J 

7     1 

7     9 

8     6 

9     2 

9  11 

10     7 

11     4      12     0 

12     9 

9 

76       83 

9    0 

9    9 

10    6 

11    :J 

12     0      12     9 

13     6 

9£ 

7  11        88 

9    6 

10    3 

11     1 

11  10 

12     s      13     f, 

14    :j 

10          S     4        9     2 

10    0 

10  10 

11     8 

12    6 

l:j     4 

14     2 

If)     U 

JS 

I-JJ        89        97 

10     6 

11     4 

12    3 

13     1 

14    0      14  10 

15     9 

&. 

11      ;     9     2 

10     1 

11     0 

11  11 

12  10 

13    9 

14     8      15     7 

16     6 

3 

11£       9     7 

10    6 

11     6 

12    5 

13    5 

14    4      lo     4 

16    3 

17     3 

1—1 

12"      10    0 

11     0 

12    0 

13    0 

14    0 

15     0 

16    0 

17     0 

18    0 

12$ 

10    5 

11     5 

12    6 

13    6 

14    7 

15     7 

It)     8 

17    S 

18    9 

13 

10  10 

11  11 

13    0 

14     1 

15     2 

16    3 

17     4 

18    5 

19     6 

l«i      11     3 

12    4 

13    6 

14     7 

15    9      16  10 

18    0 

19     1 

20    3 

14     1  11     8 

12  10 

14     0 

15    2 

16    4      17     6 

18     8 

19  10 

21     0 

141      12     1 

13    3 

14    6 

15    8 

16  11      18     1 

19    4 

20     6 

21     9 

15 

12     6 

13    9 

15    0 

16    3 

17     6 

18    9 

20    0 

21     3 

22     6 

1»4 

12  11 

14    2 

15    6 

16    9 

18     1 

19    4 

20     8 

21  11 

23    3 

16 

13    4 

14    8 

16    0 

17    4 

18    8     20    0 

21     4 

22     8 

24    0 

»16J 

13    9 

15     1 

16    6 

17  10 

19     3 

20     7 

22    0 

23    4 

24    9 

17 

14    2 

15     7 

17    0 

18    5 

19  10 

21     3 

22     8 

24     1 

25    6 

17A 

14     7 

16    0 

17    6 

18  11 

20     5 

21  10 

23     4 

24    9 

26    3 

18 

15    0 

16     6 

18    0 

19     6 

21     0 

22     6 

24    0 

25     6 

27    0 

18i 

15     5  I  16  11 

18    6 

20    0 

21     7 

23     1 

24    8 

26     2 

27     9 

19 

15  10      17     5 

19    0 

20     7 

22    2 

23    9 

25    4 

26  11 

28    6 

i 

191 

16    3     17  10 

19    6 

21     1 

22    9 

24    4 

26    0 

27     7 

29    3 

1  20' 

16    8     18    4 

20    0 

21     8 

23    4 

25     0 

26     8 

28    4 

30    0 

I 

To  reckon  the  square  feet  in  a  board,  multiply  the  width  in  inches  by  the 
length  in  feet,  and  divide  this  result  by  12,  which  gives  the  number  of  square 

feet  it  contains. 

110 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


BOARD,   PLANK,   AND   SCANTLING  MEASURE- 

Concluded. 

Width. 

19  In. 

20  In. 

2]  In. 

22  In. 

23  In. 

24  In. 

25  In. 

26  In. 

2X10 

3X7 

2X11 

2  X  12 

5X5 

2X13 

4X5 

3X8 
4X6 

Ft. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

r  i 

1     7 

1    8 

1     9 

1  10 

1  11 

2    0 

2    1 

2     2 

2 

3    2 

3    4 

3     6 

3    8 

3  10 

4    0 

4    2 

4    4 

3 

4    9 

5     0 

5     3 

5    6 

5    9 

6    0 

6    3 

6     6 

3? 

5    6 

5  10 

6     1 

6     5 

6    8 

7     0 

7    3 

7     7 

4 

6    4 

6     8 

7    0 

7     4 

7    8 

8     0 

84           88 

4» 

7     1 

7     6 

7  10 

8     3 

8    7 

9     0 

94           99 

5 

7  11 

8     4 

8    9 

9     2 

9    7 

10    0 

10     5          10  10 

5i 

8    8 

9     2 

9     7 

10     1 

10     6 

11     0 

11     5     !     11  11 

6 

9     6 

10     0 

10    6 

11     0 

11     6 

12     0 

12     6 

13     0 

6i 

10    3 

10  10 

11     4 

11  11 

12     5 

13    0 

13     6 

14     1 

7 

11     1 

11     8 

12    3 

12  10 

13    5 

14    0 

14     7 

15    2 

yi 

11  10 

12     6 

13     1 

13    9 

14    4 

15     0 

15     7          16    3 

8 

12    8 

13    4 

14    0 

14    8 

15    4 

16    0 

16     8          17     4 

85 

13    5 

14    2 

14  10 

15     7 

16    3 

17     0 

17     8 

18     5 

9 

14    3 

15    0 

15    9 

16     6 

17    3 

18    0 

18    9 

19     6 

9i 

15    0 

15  10 

16    7 

17     5 

18    2 

19     0 

19     9 

20     7 

10 

15  10 

16     8 

17    6 

•18    4 

19    2 

20    0 

20  10 

21     8 

a 

1Q1 

16     7 

17     6 

18     4 

19    3 

20    1 

21     0 

21  10 

22     9 

5>, 

11* 

17     5 

18    4 

19    3 

20    2 

21     1 

22    0 

22  11 

23  10 

fj 

Hi 

18    2 

19    2 

20     1 

21    1 

22     0 

23    0 

23  11 

24  11 

M 

12 

19    0 

20    0 

21     0 

22    0 

23    0 

24    0 

25    0 

26    0 

121 

19    9 

20  10 

21  10 

22  11 

23  11 

25    0 

26    0 

27     1 

13i 

20     7 

21     8 

22    9 

23  10 

24  11 

26    0 

27     1 

28    2 

21     4 

22     6 

23    7 

24    9 

25  10 

27     0 

28     1 

29    3 

14* 

22    2 

23    4 

24     6 

25    8 

26  10 

28    0 

29     2 

30     4 

22  11 

24    2 

25    4 

26    7 

27     9 

29    0 

30    2 

31     5 

15* 

23    9 

25    0 

26    3 

27    6 

28    9 

30    0 

31     3 

32     6 

24    6 

25  10 

27    1 

28    5 

29     8 

31     0 

32    3 

33     7 

16* 

25    4 

26    8 

28    0 

29    4 

30     8 

32    0 

33    4 

34     8 

26     1 

27    6 

28  10 

30    3 

31     7 

33    0 

34    4 

35     9 

17* 

26  11 

28    4 

29    9 

31     2 

32    7 

34    0 

35     5. 

36  10 

17i 

27    8 

29    2 

30    7 

32     1 

33    6 

35    0 

36     5 

37  11 

18 

28    6 

30    0 

31    6 

33    0 

34     6 

36    0 

37    6 

39     0 

18^ 

29    3 

30  10 

32    4 

33  11 

35    5 

37     0 

38     6 

40     1 

19 

30    1 

31    8 

33    3 

34  10 

36    5 

38    0 

39     7 

41     2 

19i 

30  10 

32     6 

34    1 

35    9 

37    4 

39    0 

40     7 

42    3 

120* 

31     8 

33    4 

35    0 

36     8 

38    4 

40    0 

41     8 

43     4 

To  reckon  the  square  feet  in  timber,  multiply  the  width  in  inches  by  the 
thickness,  and  this  result  by  the  length  in  feet.     This  result  divided  by  12 

gives  the  number  of  square  feet  contained  in  the  piece  of  timber. 

MODEliX   C  Alt  l*E  \T11Y  A\D    IH'ILI>IX<1.          Ill 

Shingles.  —  A  bundle  of  shingles,  if  full  size,  should 
have  25  courses  on  each  end,  and  be  20  inches  wide  ;  or 
else  have  22  courses  on  one  end,  and  23  courses  on  the 
other,  and  be  22  inches  wide.  Four  such  bundles  con- 
tain 1 ,000  shingles,  each  supposed  to  be  4  inches  wide. 
They  are  usually  10  inches  long;  sometimes  in  the  nicest 
class  of  shingles,  they  come  18  inches  long.  It  is  poor 
economy  to  use  an  inferior  quality  of  shingles  ;  it  costs 
rather  more  to  lay  them  than  it  does  good  ones,  and 
they  make  a  leaky  roof,  almost  from  the  first.  Spruce 
shingles  are  used  considerably  by  some,  but  are  not  suita- 
ble to  make  a  good  roof,  as  they  warp  and  twist,  and 
very  quickly  split  to  pieces.  Some  soft  pine  or  cedar 
shingles,  best  quality,  are  the  cheapest  in  the  end  :  but 
even  bundles  of  the  best  quality  will  contain  some  hard, 
glassy  shingles,  which  will  act  almost  as  badly  as  spruce ; 
they  should  be  thrown  out. 

It  takes  about  5  pounds  of  four-penny  nails  per  thou- 
sand shingles  ;  or  3  or  4  pounds  of  three-penny  coarse, 
which  we  think  are  preferable. 

One  thousand  shingles,  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather, 
will  cover  111  square  feet.  One  thousand  shingles,  laid 
4J  inches  to  the  weather,  will  cover  125  square  feet. 
One  thousand  shingles,  laid  5  inches  to  the  weather,  will 
cover  139  square  feet.  One  thousand  shingles  (18-inch 
shingles  only,  except  on  walls),  laid  5J  inches  to  the 
weather,  will  cover  153  square  feet. 

The  above  does  not  include  waste,  which  must  be 
allowed. 

Laths  are  4  feet  Ions:,  and  come  in  bundles  of  100  each. 


112         MODERN   CAMPENTliY  AND   F>UILDING. 

(We  have  seen  some  lots,  the  bundles  of  which  were  short 
some  20  or  30  laths.)  Ten  bundles  make  1.000,  which 
will  cover  about  60  square  yards,  which  requires  about 
7  pounds  of  three-penny  fine  nails. 

Clapboards  are  usually  4  feet  long,  and  come  25  in  a 
bundle  ;  4  bundles  making  a  hundred,  which  requires  about 
3J  pounds  of  five-penny  nails.  One  hundred  clapboards, 
laid  4  inches  to  the  weather,  will  cover  133  square  feet. 
One  hundred  clapboards,  laid  4J  inches  to  the  weather,  will 
cover  150  square  feet.  This  does  not  include  waste, 
which  must  be  allowed. 

Sandpaper.  —  No.  00,  too  fine.  No.  0,  too  fine.  No.  i, 
fine  enough  for  rubbing  down  paint  or  shellac.  No.  1, 
fine  for  carpenters.  No.  1J,  generally  used.  No.  2,  too 
coarse. 

Sheet  Lead  and  Zinc  for  Flashings.  —  Sheet  lead  -fa 
inch  thick  weighs  2  pounds  per  square  foot ;  -f±  inch 
thick,  weighs  3  pounds  per  square  foot  (generally  used)  ; 
T^  inch  thick,  weighs  4  pounds  per  square  foot ;  -fa  inch 
thick,  weighs  G  pounds  per  square  foot ;  £  inch  thick, 
weighs  8  pounds  per  square  foot.  Sheet  zinc  comes  in 
sheets  3x7  feet.  A  sheet  of  No.  9  zinc  (commonly 
used)  weighs  14  pounds,  that  is,  about  f  pounds  per 
square  foot. 

To  bend  a  Gooseneck.  — Fill  the  lead  pipe  full  of  sand, 
ram  it  in  well  and  plug  up  both  ends,  bend  it  carefully 
over  your  knee,  or  around  a  barrel  or  smooth  tree. 

To  bend  Brass  or  Copper  Pq)es. — Fill  them  with  melted 
rosin,  bend  carefully,  and  then  melt  out  the  rosin. 


MODE11N  CAKPENTJtY  AND   BUILDING.         113 


— 

WINDOWS. 

These  are  the  sizes  made  by  Boston  door,  sash,  and  blind 

manufacturers. 

Weight, 

Weight, 

Weight, 

Line  for 

12  Lights. 

4  Lights. 

Width. 

Height. 

IJin. 

Thick. 

11  in. 
Thick. 

Hin. 
Thick. 

each 
Weight. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Ft.    In. 

Ft.  In. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Feet. 

7x   () 

104X18 

2    Of 

3    5 

3 

- 

- 

2i 

_ 

10^X22 

2    Of 

4     1 

— 

- 

— 

2j 

8X10 

12    X20 

2    3| 

3    9 

3;i 

34 

4i 

24 

SX12 

12   X24 

2    3§ 

4    5 

4 

4* 

44 

3 

_ 

12  X25 

2    3| 

4    7 

- 

3i 

9X11 

134X22 

2    6| 

4     1 

_ 

— 

44 

9X12 

134X24 

2    6§ 

4    5 

4- 

44 

42 

3i 

9X13 
9  X  14 

13|  X  26 
134X28 

2    6§ 
2    6l 

4    9 
5     1 

9 

5* 

54 

if 

9X15 

134X30 

2    6| 

5    5 

— 

4 

3| 

9X16 

134  x  32 

2    6§ 

5    9 

_ 

— 

6 

4 

- 

14  X26 

2    7g 

4    9 

- 

4f 

5 

3i 

— 

14  X28 

2     7| 

5     1 

— 

5 

5£ 

34 

_ 

14  X30 

2    7$ 

5    5 

- 

<H 

54 

10X12 

15  X24 

2    9f 

4    5 

- 

_ 

5 

3 

10X13 

15  X26 

2    9§ 

4    9 

_ 

_ 

54 

3? 

10X14 

15  X28 

2    9§ 

5     1 

- 

5* 

5f 

34 

10X15 

15  X30 

2    9f 

5    5 

— 

5f 

6 

3^ 

10X16 

15  X32 

2    9f 

5    9 

- 

6* 

64 

4 

10X17 

15  X34 

2    9§ 

6    1 

_ 

64 

4? 

10  x  18 

15  X36 

2    9£ 

6    5 

_ 

_ 

44 

- 

16  X28 

2  111 

5    1 

- 

- 

64 

3f 

— 

16  X30 

2  Hf 

5    5 

- 

— 

64 

3? 

_ 

16  X32 

2  Hf 

5    9 

- 

- 

6| 

4 

_ 

16  X34 

2  111 

6    1 

— 

- 

7 

4|- 

12X15 

18  X30 

3    3| 

5    5 

_ 

_ 

7 

3§ 

12X16 

18  X32 

3    3f 

5    9 

_ 

_ 

74 

4 

_ 

18  X34 

3O5 
ojr 

6    1 

_ 

.  _ 

8 

44- 

12X18 

18  X36 

3    3f 

6    5 

_ 

- 

84 

44 

12X20 

•18  X40 

3    3| 

7    1 

~ 

•• 

9 

5 

Pockets  in  window-frames   should  be  cut  from  15  to  20 

inches  in  length,  according  to  the  size  of  the  frame.     For  the 

slant  of  the  window  sill,  see  explanations  accompanying  Fig. 

22,  Plate  8. 

114 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILD  [N(r. 


WINDOWS  —  Concluded. 

i 

iVeig't, 

Line 

Weig't,    Li  in.- 

2  Lights. 

Width. 

Length. 

11  in. 
th'ick. 

each 
weight 

2  Lights.      Width. 

Length. 

11  i  i. 
tliick. 

each 
weight. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.    In. 

Lbs. 

Ft. 

Inches.       Ft.    In. 

Ft.    In. 

Lbs. 

Ft. 

134  X  24 
134  X  26 

5 
5 

4     5 
4     9 

3 
31 

3 
31 

16  X  32       1     74 
16  X  34       1     7£ 

5     9 
6     1 

3 

4 

41 

ISA  x  28 

13£  X  30 

5 
5 

5     1    . 
5    5 

P 

34 

18X26       1     9| 
1SX28       1    9i 

4    9 
5     1 

4 
41 

31 
34 

13i  X  32 
15    X24 

5 

'  >  ! 

5    9 
4     5 

41 

31 

4 

IS  X  30             9| 
18X32             9£ 

5     5 
5    9 

4s 
4J 

3| 

15    X26 
15    X28 

6J 

4    9 
5     1 

3| 

31 

3A 

18  X  34             9£ 
IS  X  36             94 

6     1 
6     5 

5 
51 

41 

45 

15    X30 

6| 

5     5 

4 

31 

20  X  28           11 

5     1 

4 

3i 

15    X32 

*  i  ', 

5    9 

4^ 

4 

20  X  30           11 

5    5 

41 

3f 

15    X34 

6* 

6     1 

42 

41 

20  X  32           11 

5    9 

5 

4 

15    X36 

64 

6     5 

43 

4^ 

20X34           11 

6     1 

51 

41 

16    X28 

7* 

5     1 

4 

8l 

20  X  36           11 

6     5 

fii 

4^ 

16    X30 

74 

55         4$ 

3jj 

CELLAR   WINDOW   SASH. 

Size  of  Glass. 

Thick- 
ness. 

No.  of 
Lights. 

He  ght. 

Size  of  Glass. 

Thick- 
ness. 

No.  of 

Lights. 

Heiglit. 

6X    8  in. 

1 

in. 

3  lights 

1  It.  high 

9X13in. 

11  in. 

4  lights. 

2  It.  high 

fiX    8 

1 

« 

4 

1      '* 

9X14  " 

1  " 

3      " 

1      "    ^ 

6X    8 

1 

4 

2 

9  X  15  " 

>    ' 

3      " 

" 

7X9 

1 

2 

9X  16  " 

i    < 

3      " 

« 

7X    9 

1 

3 

9X1"  " 

^   ' 

3      " 

" 

7X    9 

1 

4 

9X18  " 

1   « 

3      " 

« 

7X    9 

1 

4 

10  X    8  " 

^   ' 

3      " 

:     " 

8X10 

1 

2 

10  X  12  " 

£   ' 

3      <s 

« 

8X10 

1 

3 

10  X  13  " 

4  " 

3      " 

i     " 

8X^0 

1 

4 

10  X  14  " 

f  " 

3      " 

1     " 

8X10 

1 

4 

2 

10X15    ' 

3       ' 

i     " 

8X12 

1 

3 

1 

10X16    ' 

'< 

3       ' 

i     <( 

8X12 

1 

4 

1 

10X17    ' 

' 

3       ' 

i     «« 

8  X  12 

1 

4 

2 

10  X  18    ' 

' 

3       ' 

i     " 

9XH 

1 

3                1 

11  X  !•>    ' 

' 

3       ' 

1         i4 

9  X  12 

1 

3                 1 

11  X  1Q    ' 

' 

3       ' 

i     " 

9X12 

1 

4              j  1 

11X17    ' 

' 

3       ' 

1         *' 

9X12 

1 

4*2 

11  X18  " 

« 

3       ' 

i     " 

9X13 
9X13 

1 
1 

' 

3       '         1       ' 
4       <         !      «< 

12  X  16  " 
12X18" 

' 

3       ' 

3       « 

i     " 
i     " 

Blinds  .are  the  same  width  as  windows,  and  are  one-half  inch  longer. 
There  are  usually  about  75  feet  of  line  in  a  hank. 

Skylight*  c 

>r  Hotbed  Sash.  —  Outside  measures,  3  feet  X  6  feet;  3  feet  X 

5  feet;  1\  feet  X  4  feet;  2^  feet  X  3|  feet;  2  feet  X  3  feet. 

NOTE.  —  Frames  for  cellar-window  sash.  For  1  light  high,  and  for  2  lights 
wide,  make  frame  31  inches  larger  than  glass.  For  2  lights  high,  and  for  3  lights 
wide,  make  frame  3£  inches  larger  than  glass. 


• 


MODE  It  X  CAEPEXTRY  AXD   BUILDIXd.          117 

Bins  for  Grain. — A  Winchester  bushel  is  18^  inches 
in  diameter  by  8  inches  deep,  and  contains  2,150.4*2  cubic 
inches,  nearly  2,15(H  cubic  inches,  and  is  used  for  measur- 
ing fine  stuff  like  grain,  beans,  etc. 

To  estimate  the  size  of  a  box  or  bin  to  hold  a  certain 
number  of  bushels,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  inches 
in  one  bushel  by  the  number  of  bushels  which  the  bin  is  to 
hold  :  this  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  inches  which  the 
bin  will  contain.  Now  assume  any  two  of  the  three  di- 
mensions of  the  bin,  say  the  length  and  the  width  ;  multi- 
ply the  number  of  inches  in  length  by  the  number  of 
inches  in  width  ;  divide  the  number  of  cubic  inches  to  be 
contained  in  the  bin  by  this  product :  the  result  will  be  the 
number  of  inches  in  depth  of  the  bin.  A  cubic  foot  con- 
tains about  |  of  a  bushel. 

A  box  9  inches  X  9  inches  x  6|  inches  deep  will  contain  1  peck. 

A  box  12  inches  x  12  inches  x  7£  inches  deep  will  contain  i 
bushel. 

A  box  14  inches  x  14  inches  X  11  inches  deep  will  contain  1 
busbel. 

5-bushel  box  or  bin  :  30  inches  x  30  inches  x  12  inches  deep,  or 
25  inches  x  25  inches  x  17-,^  inches  deep. 

10-busbel  bin  :  30  inches  x  30  inches  x  24  inches  deep,  or  2  feet 
x  3|  feet  X  21-ft  inches  deep,  or  3£  feet  x  3£  feet  x  12,3b  inches 
deep. 

15-bushel  bin  :  3£  feet  X  3£  feet  X  1S£  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  4 
feet  x  18£  inches  deep. 

20-bushel  bin  :  3^  feet  x  3£  feet  x  24|  inches  deep,  or  3£  feet  x 
4  feet  X  21tV  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  4  feet  x  24|  inches  deep. 

25-bnsbel  bin  :  3  feet  x  4  feet  x  31  £  inches  deep,  or  3£  feet  x  4£ 
feet  x  23H  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  5  feet  x  24|  inches  deep. 

30-bushel  bin  :  3£  feet  X  4£  feet  x  2S£  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  5 
feet  x  29£  inches  deep. 


118         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING. 

40-bushel  bin  :  4  feet  X  5  feet  X  29f  inches  deep,  or  4  feet  X  6 
feet  X  24|  inches  deep. 

50-bushel  bin  :  4  feet  X  6  feet  X  31£  inches  deep,  or  4£  feet  x  7 
feet  X  23[£  inches  deep,  or  5  feet  X  6  feet  x  24|  inches  deep. 

A  common  flour-barrel  will  hold  about  3|  bushels  of  grain  or 
other  fine  stuff. 

Bins  for  Apples,  Potatoes,  etc.  —  In  measuring  coarse 
stuff,  like  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  the  bushel  is  heaped  so 
that  the  cone,  formed  by  the  stuff  being  heaped,  shall  be 
not  less  than  6  inches  in  height.  A  heaped  bushel  con- 
tains 2,747.7  cubic  inches,  about  2,747f  cubic  inches. 

5-bushel  box  or  bin :  30  inches  x  30  inches  x  15£  inches  deep, 
or  2  feet  x  3  feet  x  151  inches  deep. 

10-bushel  bin:  2£  feet  x  3£  feet  x  2l£  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  4 
feet  x  16  inches  deep. 

15-bushel  bin :  3  feet  x  4  feet  x  23|  inches  deep. 

20-bushel  bin:  3  feet  x  4  feet  x  32  inches  deep,  or  3£  feet  x  4 
feet  X  27^  inches  deep. 

25-bushel  bin:  3-i  feet  x  4  feet  x  34  inches  deep,  or  3  feet  x  5 
feet  x  31|  inches  deep,  or  3£  feet  x  5  feet  x  27|  inches  deep. 

30-bushel  bin:  3  feet  x  5  feet  x  38  inches  deep,  or  3|  feet  x  5 
feet  x  32f  inches  deep. 

40-bushel  bin :  3£  feet  x  6  feet  x  36£  inches  deep,  or  4  feet  x  6 
feet  x  31|  inches  deep. 

50-bushel  bin :  4  feet  x  C  feet  x  39f  inches  deep,  or  5  feet  x  5 
feet  x  3S£  inches  deep,  or  5  feet  by  C  feet  x  31  f  inches  deep. 

A  common  flour-barrel  will  hold  about  2£  bushels  of  apples  or 
potatoes. 

To  estimate  the  Size  of  a  Tank  to  hold  a  certain  Num- 
ber of  Gallons. — A  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches.  A 
cubic  foot  contains  about  7^  gallons.  Multiply  the  num- 
ber of  cubic  inches  in  one  gallon  by  the  number  of  gallons, 
which  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  inches  which  the  tank 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    KVILDIXU.         119 

will  contain  ;  now  assume  any  two  of  the  three  dimen- 
sions of  the  tank,  say  the  length  and  the  breadth  ;  multi- 
ply the  number  of  inches  in  length  by  the  number  of  inches 
in  breadth  ;  divide  the  number  of  cubic  inches  contained  in 
the  tank  by  this  product :  the  result  will  be  the  number  of 
inches  in  depth  of  the  tank.  A  barrel  contains  31^  gallons. 

To  estimate  the  Size  of  a  Bin  to  hold  a  certain  Num- 
ber of  Tons  of  Coal.  —  A  cubic  foot  of  anthracite  coal 
weighs  from  50  to  55  pounds  :  so  a  ton  will  occupy  a  space 
of  36  or  40  cubic  feet  (3G  cubic  feet  is  usually  considered 
correct).  Multiply  the  number  of  tons  which  the  bin  is  to 
contain  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained  in  one  ton, 
which  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  feet  which  the  bin  is 
to  contain  ;  assume  any  two  of  the  three  dimensions  of 
the  bin,  say  the  length  and  breadth  ;  multiply  the  length, 
in  feet,  by  the  breadth,  also  in  feet ;  divide  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  contained  in  the  bin  by  this  product :  the  re- 
sult will  be  the  depth  of  the  bin  in  feet. 

If  a  ton  of  coal  occupies  36  cubic  feet,  then  a  bin 
4  feet  x  4  J  feet  will  hold  a  ton  of  coal  for  each  2  feet  in 
depth  ;  a  bin  4  feet  x  6  feet  will  hold  a  ton  of  coal  for  each 
18  inches  in  depth  ;  a  bin  6  feetx  6  feet  will  hold  a  ton  of 
coal  for  each  12  inches  in  depth. 

Miscellaneous.  —  In  painting,  all  knots  and  sappy  places 
should  have  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac  varnish  previous 
to  the  first  coat  of  paint.  In  nice  houses,  the  entire  wood- 
work of  the  inside  is  given  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac 
previous  to  painting.  This  prevents  the  knots  and  sap 
from  staining  the  paint  yellow. 


120         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 
Window  runs  should  never  be  varnished. 

To  help  drawers  and  window  sashes  slide  easily,  rub  the 
running  parts  with  a  piece  of  bayberry  tallow  or  paraffiue 
wax.  This,  however,  is  not  a  substitute  for  easing  them 
with  a  plane. 

A  good  thing  to  use  in  patching  small  scars  in  plaster- 
ing is  calcined  plaster  (sometimes  called  plaster-of -Paris ), 
mixed  with  common  flour  paste.  If  the  plaster  is  mixed 
with  water  it  sets  almost  instantly  ;  but  when  mixed  with 
paste  it  sets  quite  slowly,  giving  time  to  use  it  as  may  be 
desired. 

A  flour-bairel  is  28  to  30  inches  high,  and  20  or  21 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  largest  part.  This  note  may  be 
of  use  in  fitting  up  closets  and  pantries. 

Weights  of  Various  Materials.  —  These  are  taken  from 
various  sources,  and  are  generally  considered  as  practi- 
cally correct,  although  different  pieces  of  the  same  mate- 
rial will  vary  considerably  :  especially  is  this  true  of  wood  ; 
one  piece  of  dry  pine  will  sometimes  weigh  nearly  double 
as  much  as  another.  The  weights  given  are  per  cubic  foot, 
except  when  otherwise  stated  :  — 

Ash,  43  to  50  Ibs  ;  Babbitt  metal,  456.32  (cubic  inch, 
.263)  ;  beech,  43  ;  birch,  37  to  44  ;  brick  and  mortar,  115  ; 
boxwood,  80;  cast  brass,  537.75  (cubic  inch,  .31)  ;  ce- 
dar, 35  ;  chalk,  145  to  162  ;  charcoal.  18  ;  chestnut,  38  ; 
cork,  15  ;  cast  copper,  537.3  (cubic  inch,  .31)  ;  cannel 
coal,  79.5  :  bituminous  coal,  45  to  55  ;  anthracite  coal,  50 


MO  DEUX   CAItPEXTHY  AND   BUILDING.         121 

» 

to  55 ;  grindstone,  1:33.93;  granite,  180;  ebony,  74; 
English  elm,  :34  to  36  :  freestone,  150  ;  flint  glass,  192 
(cubic  inch,  .111)  ;  crown  and  common  green  glass, 
158  (cubic  inch,  .091)  ;  plate  glass,  172  (cubic  inch, 
.099)  ;  hornbeam,  47  ;  cast  iron,  451  (cubic  inch,  .26)  ; 
wrought  iron,  485  (cubic  inch.  .281)  ;  iron-wood,  71  ; 
ivory,  114;  lignumvitae,  83;  cast  lead,  708.5  (cubic 
inch,  .41);  sheet  lead,  711. G;  marble,  145  to  170; 
mercury,  848  (cubic  inch,  .49)  ;  Honduras  mahogany, 
55  ;  Nassau  mahogany,  42  ;  Spanish  mahogany,  53  ;  ma- 
ple, 42  ;  white  oak,  45  to  50  ;  live  oak,  70  ;  white  pine, 
27  to  34  ;  yellow  pine,  32  to  40  ;  rubber,  58  ;  spruce,  29  ; 
silver,  653.8  (cubic  inch,  .377);  steel,  499  (cubic  inch, 
.288);  dry  sand,  117;  sandstone,  140;  water.  62.5  ;  sea 
water,  64.18;  cast  zinc,  437  to  450  (cubic  inch,  .25)  ; 
gold,  1,203  Ibs.  10  ounces. 

To  distinguish  Right-hand  from  Left-hand  Loose  Butts. 
—  Take  one  in  your  hands,  and  open  it  so  that  the  side 
having  the  countersunk  holes  for  the  screws  will  be  up ; 
then  draw  it  apart,  having  the  pintle  pointing  from  you  ; 
then,  if  the  part  containing  the  pintle  is  in  your  right 
hand,  it  is  a  right-hand  butt;  if  it  is  in  your  left  hand, 
it  is  a  left-hand  butt.  (See  Plate  36.  Fig.  91  shows 
a  right-hand  loose  butt  drawn  apart,  and  Fig.  92  shows  a 
left-hand  loose  butt.)  The  part  of  the  butt  containing 
the  pintle  belongs  on  the  door-jamb,  or  door-frame. 
Right-hand  butts  go  on  right-hand  doors,  left-hand  butts 
on  left-hand  doors.  A  door  opening  from  you  to  the 
right  is  a  right-hand  door  :  one  opening  from  you  to  the  left 
as  a  left-hand  door. 


122         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING. 

To  find  the  Proper  Angle  to  cut  the  Mitre  of  a  Rake- 
moulding  Mitre-box. — If  the  building  is  square,  or  has 
square  corners,  the  mitre  for  the  rake-moulding  will  be  an 
angle  of  45°  let  fall  perpendicularly,  when  the  moulding 
sets  at  the  same  slant  as  the  roof.  If  the  building  is  not 
square,  then  the  angle  for  each  corner  of  the  building 
may  be  found  by  bisecting  the  angle  formed  by  the  side 
and  end  of  the  building  (see  Plate  1,  Fig.  2)  :  then  the 
mitre  for  the  rake-moulding  will  be  the  angle,  found  as 
above,  let  fall  perpendicularly.  Set  a  bevel  to  the  angle 
found,  and  mark  the  angle  on  the  top  of  the  mitre-box, 
as  shown  in  Plate  36,  Fig.  90,  «£>,  representing  the  angle : 
then  draw  a  line  square  from  b  to  c.  (If  the  building  is 
square,  the  distance  from  a  to  c  will  be  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  box  from  outside  to  outside,  from  b  to  c.)  In 
Fig.  89  we  have  shown  the  mitre-box  set  at  the  same 
slant  as  the  roof,  so  that  the  angle  on  the  side  of  the  box 
stands  perpendicularly ;  then  lay  off  a  c  at  right  angles 
with  a  6,  making  the  length  of  a  c  the  same  as  the  length 
of  a  c  in  Fig.  90 ;  then  draw  the  line  c  d  with  the  bevel 
used  to  draw  the  down  bevel  at  ab  (which  is  the  same  as 
the  down  bevel  of  the  rafters)  ;  then,  to  lay  out  the  mitre 
on  the  box,  make  a  c,  Fig.  90,  the  same  length  as  a  d, 
Fig.  89  ;  then  square  across  from  c  to  6,  join  a  and  &, 
which  gives  the  actual  angle  to  cut  the  mitre,  so  that,  if 
the  building  is  square,  an  angle  of  45°  let  fall  perpendicu- 
larly would  describe  this  angle  on  the  box,  when  the  box 
is  set  on  the  same  slant  as  the  roof,  as  shown  in  Fig.  89. 
For  convenience  of  workmen,  we  have  laid  out  the  mitres 
to  cut  rake-moulding  mitre-boxes.  They  are  as  follows, 
and  bevels  can  be  set  to  the  required  number  of  degrees . 
by  the  use  of  the  protractor  on  Plate  8  :  — 


Plate  36. 


123 


124         MODERN  CARPE  \TJtY  AND   BUILDING. 

The  angle  of  the  mitre  for  £  pitch  is  about  40°. 
The  angle  of  the  mitre  for  §  pitch  is  about  37°. 
The  angle  of  the  mitre  for  square  pitch  is  about  35°. 

These  are  the  angles  for  square  buildings,  and  will  not 
answer  for  other  than  square  buildings. 

Given  the  Diameter,  to  find  the  Rise  for  any  Chord  or 
Span. — It  sometimes  occurs,  that  it  is  desired  to  describe 
a  segment  of  a  circle  of  great  radius  ;  but  the  amount  of 
rise  is  not  known.  For  example  :  A  building  of  brick  or 
stone  is  to  be  constructed  on  part  of  a  street  which  is 
curving  ;  the  radius  of  the  curve  being,  say,  150  feet.  The 
stone-cutter  wants  a  pattern  made  to  use  for  shaping  the 
underpinning,  the  window-sills,  etc.  :  he  wants  the  pattern 
8  feet  long,  so  as  to  do  for  all  the  stone- work.  Now, 
here  we  have  an  8-foot  segment  of  a  300-foot  circle.  It 
is  impossible  to  make  any  thing  like  a  true  curve  of  that 
size  by  means  of  a  line  used  as  a  radius.  If  we  knew  the 
amount  of  rise,  we  could  describe  the  curve  by  means  of 
the  triangular  frame  described  in  Plate  3,  Fig.  8  ;  but, 
although  the  amount  of  rise  is  not  known,  it  is  a  very 
easy  matter  to  figure  it  out.  The  rule  is  as  follows  :  Sub- 
tract the  square  of  the  chord  or  span  from  the  square  of 
the  diameter,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  remain- 
der. Subtract  this  root  from  the  diameter,  and  halve  the 
remainder,  which  gives  the  rise.  To  illustrate.  The 
diameter  being  300  feet,  the  square  of  the  diameter  is 
300  x  300  feet,  which  is  90,000  feet.  The  square  of  the 
chord  or  span  (8  feet)  is  8  x  8  feet,  which  is  64  feet, 
which,  subtracted  from  the  square  of  the  diameter, 
leaves  89,936  remainder,  the  square  root  of  which  is 


MODEHX  CABPEXTliY  AXD    BUILDIX<+.         127 

299.893+,  which,  subtracted  from  the  diameter  (300 
feet),  leaves  .107  remainder,  half  of  which  gives  .053") 
feet  as  the  rise,  which  we  multiply  l»y  12  to  get  the  num- 
ber of  inches,  which  gives  .042  indies.  By  referring  to 
our  table  of  decimal  parts  of  an  inch  with  fractional 
equivalents,  we  find  that  this  is  practically  |  of  an  inch 
rise.  Now,  knowing  the  rise,  and  the  chord  or  span,  we 
can  describe  the  curve  by  means  of  the  frame  arrange- 
ment described  in  Plate  3,  Fig.  H. 

Descriptions  and  Uses  of  the  Various  Markings  on  Rules 
and  Squares,  including  the  Slide-rule,  and  how  to  use  it.  — 
Although  the  markings  on  rules  and  squares  were  made 
for  the  express  convenience  of  workmen,  yet  but  very  few 
understand  the  uses  of  them.  Every  workman  ought  to 
be  perfectly  familiar  with  all  of  them,  so  as  to  avail  him- 
self of  every  advantage  they  afford.  On  Plate  37  will 
be  found  illustrations  of  the  most  important  markings. 
Fig.  93  is  the  board- measure  commonly  found  on  the  back 
of  the  blade  of  ordinary  2-foot  squares.  To  find  the  num- 
ber of  square  feet  in  a  board,  find  the  number  represent- 
ing the  length  of  the  board  in  feet  in  the  column  under 
12  inches,  then  in  the  same  line  find  the  number  of  square 
feet  under  the  number  of  inches  in  width.  For  instance  : 
Suppose  a  board  is  14  feet  long,  and  G  inches  wide,  in 
the  column  under  12  inches  we  find  14,  the  length  of  the 
board  in  feet :  then  on  the  same  line,  under  6  inches  (the 
width) ,  we  find  7,  which  is  the  number  of  square  feet  con- 
tained in  the  board.  Again,  suppose  the  board  is  8  feet 
long,  and  5J  wide,  under  12  inches  we  find  8  (the  length 
of  the  board  in  feet)  :  then  on  the  same  line  we  find  that 


128         MODERN  CARPENTRY   AND   BUILDING. 

5J  comes  §  of  the  space  beyond  3,  which  shows  that  the 
board  contains  3f  square  feet,  or  3  feet  8  inches.  If  the 
board  is  12  feet  long,  then  the  number  of  inches  in  width 
will  be  the  number  of  square  feet  contained  in  the  board  ; 
or,  if  the  board  is  12  inches  wide,  then  the  number  of 
feet  in  length  will  be  the  number  of  square  feet  contained 
in  the  board.  Instead  of  finding  the  length  in  feet  in 
the  column  under  12  inches,  we  may  find  the  inches  in 
width,  then  in  the  same  line  we  will  find  the  number  of 
square  feet  under  the  number  of  inches  that  the  board  is 
feet  in  length.  For  instance  :  Suppose  the  board  is  16 
feet  long,  and  9  inches  wide,  under  12  inches  we  find  9, 
the  width  in  inches:  then  under  1(3  inches,  which  repre- 
sents 16  feet  (the  length),  we  find  12,  which  is  the  num- 
ber of  square  feet  which  the  board  contains.  If  either 
the  length  or  the  width  exceeds  the  figures  on  the  square, 
find  the  square  feet  in  a  board  of  half  the  length  or  half 
the  width,  and  double  the  result.  Some  say  that  this  kind 
of  board-measure  is  not  exact,  that  it  only  approximates. 
This  statement  is  not  true.  The  whole  number  of  square 
feet  is  found  exactly  where  it  occurs.  For  instance :  A 
board  8  inches  wide,  which  will  contain  5  square  feet, 
must  be  exactly  1\  feet  long ;  and  it  will  be  seen,  by  an 
inspection  of  the  square,  that  the  5  occurs  exactly  under 
7^  inches  on  the  square.  It  is  not  approximate:  it  is 
EXACT. 

Fig.  94  exhibits  what  is  called  "The  Essex  Board- 
measure,"  which  is  adopted  by  some  makers.  In  this 
style  of  board-measure  the  number  of  square  feet  and 
inches,  or  square  feet  and  twelfths,  are  found  under  every 
inch  in  length  of  the  square.  The  number  of  square  feet 


MODERN  CARPENTR 


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AND  BUILDING. 


PLATE  37. 


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See  pp.  127  to  148.  131. 


3HT. 


MOD  Elf  .V  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         133 

iii  a  board  is  found  in  the  same  manner  with  this  kind  of 
board-measure  as  with  the  former  kind.  Suppose  a  board 
is  10  inches  wide,  and  14  feet  long,  under  12  inches  we 
find  14  (the  length  in  feet)  :  then  in  the  same  line,  under 
10  inches  (the  width),  we  find  11-8,  which  represents  11T% 
square  feet. 

Fig.  95  shows  the  brace-measure,  which  is  marked  on 
the  tongue  of  squares.  The  two  numbers  at  the  left,  one 
above  the  other,  represent  the  runs  in  inches.  The  num- 
ber and  decimal  at  the  right  is  the  length  of  the  brace  in 
inches  and  hundredths.  Thus,  where  the  run  is  57  by  57 
inches,  the  length  of  the  brace  is  80.61  inches. 

Fig.  96  shows  the  octagonal  scale,  which  is  found  on 
the  tongue  of  2 -foot  squares.  This  scale  is  used  to  work 
from  centre  lines.  If  we  desire  to  8-square  a  stick  of 
10-inch  timber,  we  first  centre  the  width  of  each  side, 
then,  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  take  the  distance  from 
division  1  to  division  10,  and  set  it  off  on  each  side  of 
the  centre  line  ;  and  by  laying  out  both  ends,  and  snap- 
ping a  line,  we  have  a  guide  to  hew  by.  If  the  timber 
is  15  inches  square,  we  take  the  distance  from  division  1 
to  division  15,  and  set  it  off  on  each  side  of  the  centre 
line  as  before.  In  many  cases  we  are  obliged  to  work 
from  centre  lines  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  we  8-square  a 
log,  preparatory  to  rounding  it,  as  in  the  case  of  mast 
and  spar  making,  after  having  four  sides  flat,  there  is  no 
corner  to  gauge  from. 

Fig.  97  shows  the  octagonal  scales  usually  found  on 
rules.  The  scale  marked  M  is  the  same  as  the  octagonal 
scale  found  on  2-foot  squares,  only  it  is  sub-divided  finer, 
and  works  from  the  centre  in  the  same  manner.  The 


134         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

scale  marked  E  works  from  the  edge  or  corner.     If  f 
stick  of  timber  is  12  inches  square,  we  gauge  on  from  the 
edge  the  distance  from  division  1  to  division  12  on  the 
scale  E  ;  or,  if  it  is  14  inches  square,  we  gauge  on  from 
the  corner  the  distance  from  division  1  to  division  14. 

Fig.  98  is  a  draughting-scale,  full  size,  with  six  different 
scales  marked  off  on  it.  The  first  one  is  \  inch  to  the 
foot,  or  J  inch  =  1  foot :  then  comes  -|  inch  to  the  foot, 
f  inch  to  the  foot,  1  inch  to  the  foot,  and  also  l£  and  1^ 
inches  to  the  foot.  The  first  foot  of  the  scale  J  inch  to 
the  foot  is  divided  into  6  parts,  each  part  representing 
2  inches.  All  the  other  scales  have  the  first  foot  divided 
into  inches.  In  using  these  scales  to  draw  by,  we  begin 
to  count  the  number  of  feet  from  the  second  foot,  which  is 
numbered  1,  and  count  to  the  right:  then,  to  get  inches, 
we  count  to  the  left.  For  instance  :  If  we  are  drawing 
with  the  scale  of  f  inch  to  the  foot,  and  we  want  to  get 
2  feet  5  inches,  we  set  one  point  of  a  pair  of  compasses 
to  5  inches,  counting  from  the  right  hand  toward  the  left, 
then  extend  the  other  point  of  the  compasses  to  the  right 
till  it  reaches  the  2  feet,  which  gives  us  the  required  2  feet 
5  inches,  which  we  transfer  to  our  drawing.  These  scales 
are  usually  scattered  around  when  put  on  to  the  3-jointed 
rules,  but  on  single- jointed  rules  they  are  often  all  put 
together  the  same  as  seen  in  Fig.  98. 

Fig.  99  represents  a  scale  of  degrees,  which  is  found 
on  several  draughting  implements.  To  use  this  scale,  we 
first  draw  a  horizontal  line  (a  b)  a  couple  of  inches  long 
(see  Plate  36,  Fig.  88)  ;  set  one  point  of  a  pair  of  com- 
passes at  the  left-hand  end  (a)  of  this  line,  and,  using  the 
distance  from  C  to  60  for  a  radius,  describe  part  of  a 


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MOD'ERX  CARPEXTItY  AXD   BUILDING.         137 

circle  (6  c)  ;  then  using  b  as  a  centre,  and  with  a  radius 
equal  to  the  length  from  C  to  any  number  of  degrees 
desired,  cut  the  segment  be,  as  seen  at  d;  draw  a  line 
joining  a  and  d,  and  we  have  an  angle  of  the  desired 
number  of  degrees. 

Fig.  100  shows  a  diagonal  scale  for  obtaining  hun- 
dredths  of  an  inch,  which  is  found  on  some  2-foot  squares, 
and  on  some  draughting-scales.  It  is  merely  1  square 
inch,  divided  vertically  into  10  parts  by  horizontal  lines. 
The  upper  and  lower  edges  are  divided  into  ten  parts 
each  :  then  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  upper  left-hand  corner 
to  the  first  division  on  the  bottom  edge,  another  line  from 
the  first  division  at  the  upper  edge  to  the  second  division 
on  the  lower  edge,  and  so  on.  The  space  between  the 
vertical  line  at  the  left,  and  the  first  diagonal  line,  is  y^ 
of  an  inch  on  the  first  line  down  from  the  top ;  each  space 
to  the  right  on  this  line  is  Txo°ff  more ;  so  that  from  the 
vertical  line  to  the  second  diagonal  line  is  Tyff  on  this 
same  line,  to  the  third  diagonal  line  is  yVff»  and  so  on. 
From  the  vertical  line  to  the  first  diagonal  line  is  T§Q  of 
an  inch  on  the  second  line  down  from  the  top,  and  every 
space  to  the  right  on  this  line  is  y1^  more ;  so  that  from 
the  vertical  line  to  the  second  diagonal  line  is  y^,  and  so 
on.  From  the  vertical  line  to  the  first  diagonal  hue  is 
y$Q  on  the  third  line  down  from  the  top,  TJQ  on  the  fourth 
line  down,  y§^  on  the  fifth  line  down,  and  so  on.  To 
mark  off  any  number  of  inches  and  hundred ths,  measure 
off  the  desired  number  of  inches,  less  1  and  the  decimal, 
then,  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  take  1  inch  and  the  required 
number  of  hundredths,  and  add  it  to  the  length  already 
measured  off.  For  instance  :  If  we  want  to  measure  off 


138         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

35.58  inches,  we  first  measure  off  34  inches  ;  then  on  the 
eighth  line  clown  from  the  top,  from  the  vertical  line  to 
the  first  diagonal  line,  is  yf^y,  then  to  each  of  the  others 
is  y1^  more  ;  so  we  take  five  of  these  spaces,  which,  with 
the  first  space,  makes  y5^-  ;  so  we  set  a  pair  of  compasses 
from  the  preceding  inch  to  this  point,  and  add  it  to  the 
34  inches  already  marked  off,  and  it  gives  us  the  desired 
35.58  inches. 

THE   SLIDE-RULE.     FIG.  101. 

The  slide-rule  consists  of  four  lines,  viz.,  A,  B,  C,  D  ; 
A  being  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  rule,  B  being  on  the 
upper  edge  of  the  slide,  C  being  on  the  lower  edge  of  the 
slide,  and  D  being  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  rule.  The 
lines  A  and  B  work  together,  and  the  lines  C  and  D  work 
together.  The  divisions  and  numbers  on  A  and  B  are 
exactly  alike  ;  and,  when  closed,  they  stand  thus  :  — 

A      1        2345      etc. 
B       1        2345      etc. 

But,  if  1  on  the  slide  B  is  set  to  2  on  the  rule  A,  then  the 
numbers  will  stand  thus  :  — 

A      1        2        4        G        8      etc. 
B  1234      etc. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  2  to  1  runs 
throughout,  each  number  on  A  being  the  product  of  the 
number  immediately  underneath,  on  B,  multiplied  by  2  ; 
or,  inversely,  each  number  on  B  being  the  result  of  divid- 
ing the  number  immediately  above,  on  A,  by  2. 

If  1  on  the  slide  B  is  set  to  3  on  the  rule  A,  the  num- 
bers will  stand  thus  :  — 

A      1        3        G        9        32      etc. 
B  1284      etc. 


CARFENTHY  AXD    liriLDiyd.          139 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  f  runs  throughout, 
each  number  on  A  being  the  product  of  the  number  imme- 
diately underneath,  on  B,  multiplied  by  3  ;  or,  inversely, 
each  number  on  B  being  the  result  of  dividing  the  num- 
ber immediately  above,  on  A,  by  3. 

The  C  and  D  lines  are  relatively  different,  each  num- 
ber on  the  slide  C  being  the  square  or  self  multiple  of 
the  number  immediately  underneath,  on  the  rule  D  ;  or, 
inversely,  each  number  on  D  being  the  square  root  of 
each  number  immediately  above  it,  on  C.* 

The  numbers  and  divisions  are  to  be  read  decimally  ;  for 
the  spaces  are,  or  are  supposed  to  be,  divided  and  sub- 
divided into  tens  and  tenths.  The  ordinary  reading  of 
the  divisions  on  the  lines  A,  B,  and  C,  is,  beginning  at  the 
left,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  G,  7,  8,  9,  10,  which  is  marked  1  ;  11, 
which  is  not  numbered;  12;  then  the  intermediate  num- 
bers, 13,  14,  15,  etc.,  which  are  not  numbered,  up  to  20, 
which  is  marked  2  ;  then  the  intermediate  numbers,  21, 
22,  23,  etc.,  up  to  30,  which  is  marked  3  ;  then  continu- 
ing on  to  40,  which  is  marked  4  ;  50,  which  is  marked  5  ; 
60,  marked  6  ;  70,  marked  7  ;  80,  marked  8  ;  90,  marked 

9  ;  and  100,  which  is  marked  10.     Between  1  and  2  are 

10  principal  divisions,  which  indicate  1  plus  any  number 
of  tenths.     The  first  principal  division  beyond  1  indicates 
IT\J-,  the  second  division  indicates  1^,  and  so  on  up  to  2. 
Each  of  these  principal  divisions  between   1   and  2  are 
subdivided  into  5  parts,  each  part  representing  Tf  ^  :  so 

*  The  square  of  any  number  is  the  result  obtained  by  multiplying  that  num- 
ber by  itself  :  thus  the  square  of25s2x2=4;  the  square  of  3  is  3x3  =  9.  The 
square  root  of  any  number  is  that  number  which,  when  multiplied  oy  itself,  will 
produce  the  given  number:  thus  the  square  root  of  4  is  2,  since  2x2—4;  the 
square  root  of  9  is  3,  since  3x3  =  9. 


140         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

the  first  division  beyond  1  is  IY§^,  the  second  is  ly^0,  the 
fifth  is  1TW,  or  lT\j  ;  the  division  next  to  2  is  1T%%,  etc. 
Between  2  and  3  the  divisions  are  tenths  and  half- tenths, 
a  half- tenth  being  T§^.  From  3  to  10  the  divisions  are 
nil  teiiths ;  from  10  to  20  each  subdivision  represents  -f^; 
the  first  division  beyond  20  represents  20T% ;  the  second 
division  represents  21  ;  the  third  division  represents  21^; 
the  fourth  represents  22,  and  so  on  up  to  30  ;  from  30  up 
to  100  each  division  represents  1. 

These  numbers,  marked  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  are  arbitrary,  and 
have  no  fixed  values ;  for,  beginning  at  the  left,  1  might 
represent  10  ;  2  would  represent  20  ;  each  of  the  principal 
divisions  between  1  and  2,  which  in  the  ordinary  reading 
represented  tenths,  would  represent  1  ;  each  of  the  sub- 
divisions, which  in  the  ordinary  reading  represented  Tf  ^, 
would  represent  T2F ;  3  would  represent  30  ;  the  number 
which  formerly  represented  10  would  represent  100  ;  the 
number  which  formerly  represented  12  would  represent 
120  ;  the  number  formerly  representing  20  would  represent 
200,  and  so  on,  the  value  of  the  whole  line  being  increased 
tenfold  ;  or,  1  at  the  left  might  represent  100,  2  would 
represent  200,  and  so  on,  the  value  of  the  whole  line  being 
increased  one  hundred-fold.  On  different  lines,  1  may 
bear  different  values  in  working  out  a  problem.  For 
example :  Multiply  40  by  5.  We  set  1 ,  which  is  on  the 
line  B,  to  5,  on  the  line  A :  above  4,  which  we  will  call 
40,  on  the  line  B,  we  find  20  on  the  line  A  ;  but,  since  we 
have  increased  the  value  of  one  of  the  divisions  tenfold 
its  ordinary  value,  we  must  increase  the  result  the  same, 
which  gives  us  200  as  the  answer.  The  line  D  is  divided 
the  same  as  A,  B,  and  C  are,  from  1  to  10,  only  on  a 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDINd.         141 

larger  scale;  and  1  on  this  line  may  represent  1,  10,  or 
100,  the  same  as  the  other  lines.  It  will  require  consid- 
erable practice  to  readily  and  correctly  read  the  numbers 
and  tenths  or  huudredths  on  the  slide-rule,  with  the  differ- 
ent values  which  1  may  bear ;  and,  in  practising,  it  would 
be  well  for  the  beginner  to  compare  the  answers  he 
obtains  with  some  printed  tables  that  are  correct.  If 
his  answers  do  not  agree  with  the  tables,  he  has  made  an 
error  somewhere,  which  must  be  rectified.  By  consid- 
erable and  careful  practice  he  will  become  expert  in  the 
use  of  the  slide-rule. 

Multiplication  by  the  Slide-rule.  —  RULE.  Set  1  on  the 
line  B  to  the  number  on  A,  which  is  used  as  the  multi- 
plier :  then  above  the  number  on  B,  which  is  used  as  a 
multiplicand,  find  the  answer  on  the  line  A. 

P^xamples.  — To  multiply  4  by  5,  we  set  1  on  the  line 
B  to  4  on  the  line  A :  then  above  5  on  the  line  B  we  find 
the  answer  20  on  the  line  A. 

To  multiply  3J  by  2£,  we  set  1  on  the  line  B  to  2£  on 
the  line  A :  then  above  3|  on  the  line  B  we  find  the  an- 
swer 8J  on  the  line  A. 

To  multiply  30  by  4,  we  set  1  on  the  line  B  to  4  on  the 
line  A  :  then  above  3,  which  we  will  call  30,  on  the  line  B, 
we  find  12  on  the  line  A.  Now,  as  we  have  increased  the 
value  of  three  tenfold  over  its  ordinary  value,  we  must 
increase  the  result  tenfold  to  get  the  answer:  10  times  12 
equal  120,  the  required  answer. 

To  multiply  35  by  25,  we  set  1  on  the  line  B  to  2J  (2.5, 
or  2  T5o),  which  we  will  call  25,  on  the  line  A  :  then  above 
3J  (3.5,  or  3T5o),  which  we  will  call  35,  on  the  line  B, 


142         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUJLDlNd. 


we  find  8.75  (8-^  =  8^)  on  the  line  A.  Now,  as  we 
have  increased  the  value  of  2|  tenfold,  and  also  have 
increased  the  value  of  3^  to  tenfold  its  ordinary  value,  we 
must  increase  the  result  ten  times  tenfold,  which  is  one 
hundred-fold:  one  hundred  times  8.75  (8T7Q5^j)  is  875,  the 
required  answer. 

Division  by  the  Slide-rule.  —  RULE.  Set  the  number 
indicating  the  divisor  on  the  line  B  under  the  number 
indicating  the  dividend  on  the  line  A  :  then  above  1  on 
the  line  B  find  the  answer  on  the  line  A. 

Examples.  —  To  divide  24  by  6,  we  set  6  on  the  line  B 
under  24  on  the  line  A  :  then  above  1  on  the  line  B  we 
find  the  answer  4  on  the  line  A. 

To  divide  260  by  13,  we  set  13  on  the  line  B  under  26, 
which  we  will  call  260,  on  the  line  A  :  then  over  1  on  the 
line  B  we  find  2  on  the  line  A.  But,  since  we  have  in- 
creased the  value  of  26  tenfold  its  ordinary  value,  we 
must  increase  the  result  tenfold  :  ten  times  2  equal  20, 
the  required  answer. 

To  divide  3,500  by  50,  we  set  5,  which  we  will  call  50, 
on  the  line  B  under  35,  which  we  will  call  3,500,  on  the 
line  A  :  then  above  1  on  the  line  B  we  find  7  on  the  line 
A.  Now,  to  find  how  many  fold  to  increase  this  result, 
we  divide  the  number  of  times  we  increased  the  value  of 
35,  which  we  increased  one  hundred-fold,  by  the  number 
of  times  we  increased  the  value  of  5,  which  was  tenfold  ; 
100  divided  by  10  equals  10,  so  we  must  increase  the 
result  tenfold  ;  ten  times  7  equal  70,  the  required  answer. 

Proportion  by  the  Slide-rule.  —  Example  1.     As  3  is  to 


MODEEX  CAUPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING.         143 

12,  so  is  5  to  the  answer.  We  set  3  on  the  line  B  under 
12  on  the  line  A  :  then  above  5  on  the  line  B  we  find  the 
answer,  20,  on  the  line  A. 

Example  2.  — As  2J  is  to  5J,  so  is  3  to  the  answer.  We 
set  2|  on  the  line  B  under  5-}  on  the  line  A  :  then  above 
3  on  the  line  B  we  find  the  answer,  6T3<j,  on  the  line  A. 

Example  3.  — If  my  wages  are  $2.75  per  day  (working 
10  hours),  how  much  will  be  due  me  when  I  have  worked 
6  days  and  4  hours  ?  We  reduce  the  days  and  parts  of  a 
day  to  hours :  6  days  and  4  hours  equal  G4  hours  :  so  we 
state  our  proportion  as  follows.  As  10  is  to  G4,  so  is 
$2.75  to  the  answer.  We  set  1,  which  we  will  call  10, 
on  the  line  B,  under  6T4,j  (G.4),  which  we  will  call  04,  on 
the  line  A :  then  above  2^  (2.75,  or  2})  on  the  line  B 
we  find  the  answer,  17f,  on  the  line  A.  $17f  equal 
$17.60. 

Example  4. — If  I  pay  a  man  $15  per  week,  what 
should  I  pay  him  for  84-  days'  work?  We  may  state  our 
proportion  as  follows.  As  G  is  to  &J,  so  is  15  to  the  an- 
swer. We  set  6  on  the  line  B  under  8^  on  the  line  A : 
then  above  15  on  the  line  B  we  find  the  answer,  21J,  on 
the  line  A.  $21J  equal  $21.25. 

SQUARES    AND    SQUARE    ROOTS. 

The  square  of  any  number  is  the  result  obtained  by 
multiplying  that  number  by  itself. 

The  square  root  of  any  number  is  that  number  which, 
when  multiplied  by  itself,  will  produce  the  given  number. 

When  the  slide  is  shut  so  that  1  on  the  line  C  is  even 
with  1  on  the  line  D,  then  the  square  of  any  number  on 
the  line  D  is  found  just  above  it  on  the  line  C  :  thus  the 


144         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

square  of  3  011  the  line  D  is  9,  which  is  found  just  above 
it  on  the  line  C  ;  and  the  square  root  of  any  number  on 
the  line  C  is  found  just  below  it  on  the  line  D  :  thus  the 
square  root  of  9  on  the  line  C  is  3,  which  is  found  just 
below  it  on  the  line  D.  The  square  root  of  5  on  the  line 
C  is  2.23  (2T2o30),  which  is  found  just  below  it  on  the 
line  D. 

DECIMAL   AND    COMMON    FRACTIONS. 

To  change  a  Common  Fraction  to  a  Decimal.  —  RULE. 
Set  the  number  representing  the  denominator  of  the  given 
fraction  on  the  line  B,  under  the  number  representing  the 
numerator :  then  above  1  on  the  line  B  the  number  of 
tenths  or  hundredths  will  be  found  on  the  line  A.* 

Example.  — Change  f  to  a  decimal.  We  set  the  denom- 
inator 4  on  the  line  B,  under  the  numerator  3  on  the  line 
A  (actually  under  30)  :  then  above  1  on  the  line  B  we 
find  7J  tenths,  or  75  hundredths  (.75),  on  the  line  A. 

To  change  a.  Decimal  to  a  Common  Fraction.  —  RULE. 
Set  1  on  the  line  B,  under  the  number  of  tenths  or  hun- 
dredths on  the  line  A  ;  then  find  the  number  on  the  line  A 
which  exactly  coincides  with  any  number  on  the  line  B ; 
the  number  on  the  line  A  will  be  the  numerator,  and  the 

*  The  right-hand  half  of  the  line  A  is  generally  used  in  stating  the  example; 
what  really  is  10  being  considered  as  1,  and  20  being  considered  as  2,  etc.,  unless 
the  numerator  of  the  given  fraction  should  be  larger  than  10,  in  which  case  the 
numerator  would  be  the  number  actually  taken  on  the  line  A.  In  many  cases, 
where  the  numerator  and  denominator  contain  more  than  one  figure,  considera- 
ble judgment  must  be  used  to  determine  whether  the  result  obtained  is  tenths, 
hundredths,  or  thousandths.  From  1  to  10  on  the  line  A  is  divided  into  10  parts, 
which  are  numbered  from  1  to  10.  In  changing  fractions  to  decimals,  these  parts 
usually  represent  tenths.  These  parts  are  subdivided  into  10  parts  each,  which 
represent  hundredths;  there  being  100  divisions,  all  told,  from  1  to  10, 


^es^T/I^^ 

OF   THK         ^y 

UNIVERSITY 
Of 


CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.          147 


number  on   the   line   B  will   be   the   denominator,  of  the 
required  fraction. 

Example.  —  Change  the  decimal  .025  to  a  common  frac- 
tion. We  set  1  on  the  line  B,  to  6J  (GJ  tenths  —  .625) 
on  the  line  A  ;  then  we  find,  toward  the  right-hand  end  of 
the  rule,  that  y  on  the  line  A  coincides  with  8  on  the  line 
B  :  so  we  have  |  for  the  answer. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To  find  the  Diagonal  of  Any  Square  (or  the  Length  of 
Brace  where  the  Run  is  the  Same  Each  Way).  —  Set  70 
on  B  to  99  on  A  :  find  the  diagonal  on  A  above  the  length 
of  side  (or  run,  for  braces)  on  B. 

To  find  the  Diameters  or  Circumferences  of  Circles.  — 
Set  7  on  B  to  22  on  A  :  then  any  number  on  A  is  the 
circumference  of  the  circle  whose  diameter  is  immediately 
beneath,  or  vice  versa. 

BOARD    MEASURE. 

Set  the  length  in  feet  on  B  to  12  on  A  :  find  the  num- 
ber of  square  feet  on  B  below  the  width  in  inches  on  A. 

AREAS    OF    CIRCLES. 

Set  7  on  C  to  3  on  D  :  the  area  of  any  circle  whose 
diameter  is.  on  D  is  found  just  above,  on  C.* 

We  have  given  only  a  small  part  of  what  may  be  done 
by  the  use  of  the  slide-rule.  We  have  given  only  that 
which  would  be  of  the  most  value  to  workmen.  There 

*  If  tbe  diameter  is  inches,  the  area  will  be  square  inches;  and,  if  the  diam- 
eter is  feet,  the  area  will  be  square  feet. 


148         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

are  several  works  which  are  devoted  entirely  to  explana- 
tions of  the  uses  of  the  slide-rule,  and  any  one  desiring 
to  pursue  this  subject  farther  would  do  well  to  obtain  a 
copy.  However,  until  one  is  very  expert  in  the  use  of 
the  slide-rule,  it  would  be  safer  for  him  to  figure  out  the 
problems  he  may  have  occasion  to  do. 

GLUE    AND    GLUING. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  glue,  ranging  in  price  from 
twelve  cents  to  fifty  cents  per  pound.  For  general  use, 
a  good  quality  of  glue  can  be  purchased  for  twenty  or 
twenty-five  cents  per  pound.  Previous  to  cooking,  glue 
should  be  soaked  in  cold  water  till  it  becomes  quite  soft 
and  pliable  ;  the  length  of  time  required  depends  on  the 
kind  and  quality  of  the  glue  :  poor,  cheap  glue  will  nearly, 
and  sometimes  completely,  dissolve  in  cold  water ;  while 
good  glue  will  require  several  hours'  soaking  ;  some  kinds 
require  to  be  soaked  twenty-four  hours  or  more,  but  such 
glue  is  not  commonly  used.  When  the  glue  has  been 
soaked  sufficiently,  drain  off  what  water  remains,  and  set 
the  dish  holding  the  glue  into  a  dish  containing  water, 
and  set  it  over  the  fire  to  cook.  The  object  of  setting  the 
glue-dish  into  water,  is  to  prevent  the  glue  from  getting 
scorched.  The  water  cannot  get  hotter  than  212°,  which 
is  not  hot  enough  to  injure  the  glue.  To  secure  the  best 
possible  results,  the  following  conditions  must  be  complied 
with  :  namely,  the  glue  must  be  of  good  quality  and  newly 
made  ;  it  must  be  of  the  proper  consistency,  neither  too 
thick  —  or  the  two  surfaces  will  not  come  together  —  nor 
yet  too  thin  ;  the  glue  must  be  as  hot  as  boiling  water  can 
heat  it ;  the  work  must  be  properly  fitted,  and  should  be  as 


MODERN    CARPENTRY  AND   nUILDIXG.          141^ 

warm  as  can  be  borne  against  the  cheek  ;  the  room  should 
be  very  warm,  especially  in  gluing  large  surfaces,  and  i:i 
veneering:  the  glue  should  be  plentifully  applied  to  both 
surfaces,  and  then  the  work  should  be  clamped  together 
firmly  ;  and  the  clamps  should  not  be  taken  off  until  the 
glue  is  hard,  clear  into  the  middle  of  the  joints.  Very 
large  jobs  of  gluing  should  set  two  or  three  days  before 
the  clamps  are  removed.  The  consistency  of  the  glue 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done. 
For  large  surfaces,  the  glue  may  be  quite  thin,  and  plenti- 
fully used.  For  small  work,  the  glue  may  be  of  thicker 
consistency ;  but  it  must  be  applied  hot.  For  gluinir 
wood  endways,  the  ends  should  first  be  sized  with  a  reri/ 
thin  coat  of  glue  ;  when  the  sizing  gets  thoroughly  dry. 
smooth  the  raised  grain  with  a  piece  of  line  sand-paper 
used  over  a  straight  stick  ;  then  coat  each  end  with  hot 
glue,  and  clamp  firmly  together  ;  let  it  set  over  night,  sure. 
In  gluing  boards  together  edgeways,  many  workmen  do 
not  bother  to  joint  them  both  true,  but  depend  on  the 
clamps  to  force  them  to  a  joint.  If  the  glue  is  good,  the 
work  may  hold  together  some  time  ;  but  there  is  always  a 
strain  on  the  glue.  Some  spell  of  damp  weather  may 
soften  the  glue  a  very  little,  and  open  goes  the  joint.  Of 
course,  the  glue  gets  the  blame,  instead  of  the  workman, 
who  deserves  to  be  blamed.  While  many  workmen  make 
rubbed  joints  six  feet  or  more  in  length,  it  is  a  bad  prac- 
tice:  no  joint  longer  than  two  feet  ought  ever  to  be 
merely  rubbed  together,  and  it  is  safer  to  apply  clamps  in 
every  case.  In  veneering,  put  a  thickness  of  newspaper 
between  the  veneer  and  the  caul.  This  prevents  the  glue, 
which  strikes  through  the  veneer,  from  sticking  the  veneer 


150         MODKRN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

to  the  caul.  Some  accomplish  the  same  purpose  by  using 
sheets  of  zinc,  which  the}7  rub  with  a  piece  of  hard  soap 
or  wax.  This  is  better  than  using  paper,  as  it  saves  the 
labor  of  cleaning  the  paper  off  from  the  veneer. 

To  keep  glue  from  smelling,  take  the  dish  holding  the 
glue  out  of  the  dish  containing  the  water,  when  done 
using,  so  as  to  let  the  glue  get  cold  as  soon  as  possible. 
Also  do  not  keep  the  glue  boiling  all  day  long,  but  heat  it 
only  when  it  is  needed.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  up 
only  enough  at  a  time  to  last  two  or  three  days,  especially 
in  the  summer-time,  so  as  to  have  it  fresh  and  good.  A 
piece  of  sheet-zinc,  as  large  as  will  lay  in  the  bottom  of 
the  glue-pot,  will  also  greatly  aid  in  keeping  the  glue 
from  smelling.  Some  put  in  a  little  alcohol,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  does  any  good :  it  probably  very 
quickly  evaporates.  Oil  of  cloves  would  be  better. 

N.B. — Keep  thin -shaved  veneers,  such  as  ash  and 
walnut  burls,  in  rather  a  damp  place  until  wanted  ;  as 
they  will  curl  and  split  up  badly  if  kept  in  a  dry  room. 


MOUEllX  CAltPEXTKY  AXD 


151 


STRENGTH    OF  MATERIALS. 
TENSILE   STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS. 

WEIGHT  OK  POWEIS  IIEQUIKED  TO  TEAK  ASUXDEB  ONE  SQUARE 

INCH. 


METALS. 

Breaking- 
Weight. 

WOODS. 

Breaking- 
Weight. 

Copper,  wrought 

Ib*. 

34.000 

Asb  

Ibs. 
14  nun 

"       cast  (Amer.  )  . 

24.259 

Beech 

11  500 

"       bolt  .... 

30,800 

Box  

20,000 

31,829 

Bay  

14  (KK> 

(    4,000 

Cedar    . 

11  400 

"        "     (safe-load)  . 

to 
(    5,000 

Chestnut,  sweet      .     . 
Cypress      

10,500 
6,000 

"     wrought    .     .     . 

(55,000 
1      to 

Deal,  Christiana     .     . 
Elm  

12,400 
13,400 

(65,000 

Lance    

2:3,000 

"           "     (safe-l'd), 

(    8,000 
1     to 

Lignum-vitae  .     .     .     . 
Locust 

11,800 
20  500 

"     bolts     .... 
Lead,  cast  .... 

(10,000 
52,250 
1  800 

Mahogany      .... 

"          Spanish      . 

a               t. 

21,000 
12,000 

8000 

Steel,  mean    .... 
"     maximum     .     . 
Tin,  cast  block  .     .     . 
"     Bauca    .... 
Yellow  metal      .     .     . 
Zinc  

88,657 
142,000 
5,000 
2,122 
48,700 
3,500 

Maple    
Oak,  American  white, 
"     English      .     .     . 
"'•    (seasoned) 
"     African      .     .     . 
Pear      ...... 

10,500 
11,500 
10,000 
13,600 
14,500 
9,800 

"     sheet     .... 

16,000 

Pine,  pitch     .... 
"      larch     .... 
"     American  white, 
Poplar  

12,000 
9,500 
11,800 
7,000 

Spruce,  white     .     .     . 
Sycamore  

10,290 
13,000 

Teak               .... 

14  000 

Walnut                     .     . 

7  800 

Willow  

13,000 

152         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

RESULTS    OF    EXPERIMENTS    ON    THE    TENSILE 

STRENGTH    OF    WROUGHT-IRON    TIE-RODS.* 
COMMON  ENGLISH  IKON,   Ift  INCHES  IN  DIAMETER. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  CONNECTION. 

Breaking- 
Weight. 

Semicircular  hook  fitted  to  a  circular  anil  welded  eye  .     . 
Two  semicircular  liooUs  liooked  together    . 

Ibs. 

14,000 
16,220 

29,120 
48,160 
56,000 

Right-angled  hook,  or  gooseneck,  fitted  into  a  cylindrical 

Two  links,  or  welded  eyes,  connected  together    .... 
Straight  rod  without  any  connection  articulation    .     .     . 

TRANSVERSE   STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS. 

When  one  end  is  fixed,  and  the  other  projecting,  the 
strength  is  inversely  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from 
the  section  acted  upon  ;  and  the  strain  upon  any  section 
is  directly  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  that  section. 

When  both  ends  are  supported  only,  the  strength  is  4 
times  greater  for  an  equal  length,  when  the  weight  is  ap- 
plied in  the  middle  between  the  supports,  than  if  one  end 
only  is  fixed. 

When  both  ends  are  fixed,  the  strength  is  6  times 
greater  for  an  equal  length,  when  the  weight  is  applied 
in  the  middle,  than  if  one  end  only  is  fixed,  or  one-half 
stronger  than  if  both  ends  were  merely  supported. | 

When  the  weight  or  strain  is  uniformly  distributed,  a 
beam  will  sustain  double  the  weight  that  it  would  bear  if 
the  load  was  all  at  the  centre. 

*  From  one-fourth  to  one-seventh  of  the  breaking-weight  is  a  safe-load. 

t  If  a  beam  is  supported  two  or  three  feet  from  each  end,  a  weight  applied 
in  the  centre  would  cause  the  ends  to  tip  up  as  the  middle  went  down ;  but  if 
the  ends  were  fixed,  —  say,  for  example,  built  into  a  brick  wall,  —  the  beam 
would  sustain  one-half  more  weight  than  if  the  ends  were  merely  supported. 


MODERN  CAEPEXTJiY  AND   KUILDJXG. 


153 


TRANSVERSE   STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS.* 

REDUCED  TO  THE  UNIFORM  MEASURE  OF  ONE  INCH  SQUARE, 
AND  ONE  FOOT  IN  LENGTH,  EXTENDING  HORIZONTALLY, 
FIXED  AT  ONE  END,  AVEIGIIT  SUSPENDED  FROM  THE 
OTHER. 


METALS. 

Breaking- 
Weight. 

J 
-1 

WOODS. 

Breaking- 
Weight, 

i 

J 
A 

Ibs. 
i  507 

Ibs. 
(   125 

Ash    .     . 

,„.. 

168 

"». 

Oast-iron  

\     to 

1     to 

Beech      

130 

32 

i  772 

(  250 

Birch      

160 

40 

!170 

Chestnut 

160 

53 

"      "      nu'Hii 

681 

to 
*>25 

Deal  (Christiana)    .     . 
Elm              .... 

137 

125 

45 
30 

(   600 

(   160 

Hickory  

250 

65 

'     to 

<     to 

295 

80 

/   700 

(  200 

Maple      

202 

65 

Steel  (greatest)       .    . 

"      puddled     (per-  ) 
mancnt  bent)  ) 

1,918 
800 

(  350 
j     to 
(   450 
(   170 
to 
|   225 
55 

Norway  Pine  .... 
Oak,  African  .... 
"      American  white  . 
live      . 

"    English    .... 

123 
208 
230 
245 
!140 
to 
188 

40 
50 
50 
55 

{*' 
(  45 

Brass    

58 

160 

50. 

Riga  Fir      

94 

30 

Teak  .     .     . 

l>06 

60 

STONES  (American). 

Flagging  (blue)     .    . 
Freestone  (Conn.) 
"          (Dorches- 
ter     

31 
13 

10  8 

10 
4 

3  5 

White  Pine  (Amer.)    . 
Whitewood     .... 

130 
116 

45 

38 

Freestone  (N.Jersey) 

Freestone  (N.York)  , 
Granite,  blue,  coarse, 
"        (Quincy, 
Mass.)  

(     17.8 
to 
(     20.1 
24 

18 

26 

(       8 
to 

(       6.5 

8 
6 

8  5 

*  The  safe-load  of  any  material  is  from   one-fourth  to  one-seventh  of  its 
breaking-weight. 


154         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

TO    COMPUTE   THE    TRAVERSE    STRENGTH    OF    A    RECTANGULAR 
BEAM    OR    BAR. 

When  the  Beam  or  Bar  is  fixed  at  One  End,  and  loaded 
at  the  Other.  —  RULE.  Multiply  the  safe-load  given  in  the 
table  by  the  breadth  and  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  in  feet.* 

If  the  Dimensions  are  required  of  a  Beam  or  Bar,  sup- 
ported  at  one  End  to  sustain  a  Given  Weight  at  the  Other 
End.  —  RULE.  Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and  the 
length  in  feet  by  the  safe-load  given  in  the  table,  and 
the  result  is  the  square  of  the  depth  multiplied  by  the 
breadth  or  thickness  :  so  by  dividing  this  result  by  the 
breadth,  and  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  quotient, 
we  have  the  depth  in  inches. 

When  a  Beam  or  Bar  is  fixed  at  Both  Ends,  and  loaded 
in  the  Middle.  —  RULE.  Multiply  the  safe-load  given  in 
the  table  by  G  times  the  breadth,  and  by  the  square  of  the 
depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  in 
feet. 

If  the  Dimensions  of  a  Beam  or  Bar  are  required  to 
support  a  Given  Weight  in  the  Middle,  between  the  Fixed 
Ends.  —  RULE.  Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and 
the  length  in  feet  by  6  times  the  safe-load  given  in  the 
table,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  square  of  the  depth 
multiplied  by  the  breadth  or  thickness  in  inches  :  so  we 
divide  this  result  by  the  breadth,  and  extract  the  square 
root  of  the  quotient,  which  gives  the  depth  ;  or,  divide 

*  When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  its  length,  the  result  must 
be  doubled. 


MODEHX  CAHPEXTUY  AXD    BUlLDlMi.         155 

the  result  by  the  square  of  the  depth,  and  the  quotient 
is  the  breadth  or  thickness. 

When  a  Beam  or  Bar  is  supported  at  Both  Ends,  and 
loaded  in  the  Middle.  —  RULE.  Multiply  the  safe-load 
given  in  the  table  by  4  times  the  breadth,  and  by  the 
square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  this  product  by 
the  length  in  feet.* 

If  the  Dimensions  are  required  to  support  a  Given 
Weight.  —  RULE.  Divide  the  product  of  the  weight  and 
the  length  in  feet  by  4  times  the  safe-load  given  in  the 
table  ;  the  result  is  the  square  of  the  depth  multiplied  by 
the  breadth  or  thickness  :  so  we  divide  this  result  by  the 
breadth,  and  extract  the  square  root,  which  gives  the 
depth ;  or,  divide  the  result  by  the  square  of  the  depth, 
and  the  quotient  is  the  breadth  or  thickness  in  inches. 

In  all  uses,  such  as  in  buildings  and  bridges,  where  the 
structure  is  exposed  to  sudden  impulses,  the  load  or  stress 
to  be  sustained  should  not  exceed  from  J-  to  -J  of  the 
breaking-weight  of  the  material  employed  ;  but  when  the 
load  is  uniform,  or  the  stress  quiescent,  it  may  be  increased 
to  ^  or  J  of  the  breaking-weight.  In  churches,  buildings, 
etc.,  the  weight  to  be  provided  for  should  be  estimated  at 
that  which  at  any  time  may  be  placed  thereon,  or  which 
at  any  time  may  bear  upon  any  portion  of  their  floors. 
Where  the  weight  of  people  alone  is  to  be  provided  for, 
an  estimate  of  1 75  pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor-surface 
is  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  weight  of  flooring  and  the 

*  When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  its  length,  the  result  must 
be  doubled. 


15G 


MODERN  CARPENTRY   AND   BUILDING. 


load  upon  it.     The  usual  allowance  for  stores  and  facto- 
ries is  280  pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor-surface. 

When  a  beam  has  four  or  more  supports,  its  condition 
as  regards  a  stress  upon  its  middle  is  that  of  a  beam  fixed 
at  both  ends. 

I  WROUGHT-IRON  BEAMS.* 
(TisExrox  IRON  WORKS,  COOPER,  HEWITT,  &  Co.,  NEW  YORK.) 


£ 

•g 

3  = 

^e 

o 

53.5 

. 

I? 

J, 

-^H) 

Safe-Load. 

^ 

^8, 

-^-5 

Safe-Load. 

•^ 

3*3 

'S.S 

•Sf  §  i 

I 

.2*0 

T;^: 

.SP  §  § 

JJ 

g* 

^fc*i-5 

4) 

1 

^^ 

£*- 

in. 

in. 

in. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

6 

4 

3 

13.3 

76,000 

9 

^ 

4 

30 

246,000 

6 

-nr 

3{- 

16.6 

92,000 

9 

f 

5| 

50 

448,000 

7 

3 

8* 

20 

124,000 

12t 

tbr 

4^ 

40 

390,000 

9 

a 

3? 

23.3 

192,000 

15 

A 

4-r6 

51.6 

640,000 

9 

A 

4 

28 

240,000 

15 

A 

8 

5| 

66.6 

908,000 

To  find  the  Safe-load  for  any  of  the  Above  Beams  for  a 
Gil-en  Length,  Weight  to  be  uniformly  distributed.  —  RULE. 
Divide  the  safe-load  of  the  beam  given  in  the  table  by  the 
length  in  feet'. 

Illustration. — What  is  the  weight,  uniformly  distrib- 
uted, that  may  be  borne  with  safety  by  an  iron  beam 
G  inches  deep,  web  T5F  thick,  flanges  3J  inches  wide,  and 
10  feet  long?  We  find  the  safe-load  given  in  the  above 
table  to  be  92,000  pounds,  which,  divided  by  ten,  the 
length  in  feet,  gives  9,200  pounds. 


:  Load  uniformly  distributed,  beam  resting  upon  two  supports. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


157 


CKUSHING-STKEXGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

DEDUCED   TO    A    VXIFOIIM    MKASUKE    OF    ONE    Scjt'AIJK    IXCII. 


MATERIAL. 

Crutshing- 
Wcight. 

MATERIAL. 

Crushinsr- 
\Veiglu. 

METALS. 

Cast-iron,  American,  mean  . 
Wrought-iron,  American 
"                     "     mean, 

11.8. 

129,000 
127,720 
83,500 
164  800 

STONES,   ETC. 

Common  brick  masonry 

Freestone,  Belleville  .     .     . 
"           Caen      .... 

Ibs. 
(        500 
to 
(        800 
3,522 
1,088 

117,000 

"          Connecticut  . 

3,919 

295  000 

"          Dorchester    . 

3,069 

Cast-tin        

15,500 

"          Little  Falls    .     . 

2,991 

Lead 

7  730 

Granite,  Patapsco  .... 

5,340 

WOODS. 
Ash     

6,663 

'        Quincy     .... 
Ma  ble,  Baltimore,  large     . 
"           small    . 
East  Chester*  .     . 
Hastings  N.Y. 

15,300 
8,057 
18,061 
13,917 
18,941 

Beech 

6  963 

Italian 

19  624 

Birch  

7  969 

Lee   Ma*s      .     .     . 

22,702 

Box     

10,513 

Montgomery    Co., 

•Cedar  red 

5  968 

8,950 

Chestnut      

5,350 

Stockbridge  f     •     • 

10,382 

Elm 

6  831 

11,156 

8,925 

"                 fine 

q  113 

18,248 

Mahogany,  Spanish      .     .     . 
Maple 

8,198 
8  150 

"        Symington,    strata 

10,124 

•Oak,  American  white  . 
Pine,  pitch  
"      white  

6,100 
8,947 
5.775 

"       Symington,    strata 
vertical      .    .    . 

9,324 
(       120 

S  '200 

Mortar  

to 

ft  350 

(       240 

7,Og-> 

Sandstone,  Adelaide  . 

2.800 

Teak  

12,100 

"          Aquia  Creek  J    . 

5,340 

Walnut   

6,645 

"          Seneca  §    ... 

10,762 

*  Same  as  that  of  the  General  Post-office,  Washington. 
t  Same  as  that  of  the  City  Hall,  New  York. 

t  Same  as  that  of  the  Capitol,  Treasury  Department,  and  Patent  Office, 
'Washington,  D.C. 

§  Same  as  that  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 


158         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

The  Orushing-strengtJi  of  any  body  is  in  proportion  to 
the  area  of  its  section,  and  inversely  as  its  height. 

In  tapered  columns  the  strength  is  determined  by  the 
least  diameter. 

With  cast-iron,  a  pressure  beyond  20,680  pounds  per 
square  inch  is  of  little,  if  any,  use  in  practice. 

The  safe-load  that  may  be  borne  by  a  column  of  cast- 
iron,  independent  of  any  considerations,  regarding  the 
operation  of  its  ends,  as  to  their  being  flat  or  rounded, 
etc.,  is  from  5,000  to  8,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for 
short  or  stable  bodies. 


MODERN  CAltPEXTliY  AND   BVILD1XU.          15i> 


« 

i; 

w  £ 

M 


PQ 


5 

i 

'  1  1 

2? 

1 

x      ^1       3^ 
60      t-      o 

i  S 

5 

i 

00         '^- 
Cl         >.'7' 

| 

1 

111 

CM         CC 

1—1 

c 

M 

i 

K    •*    % 

t 

c? 

?!     =     s. 

•S 

-t 

c? 

111 

1 

t2 

111 

I        § 

^ 

a 

§ 

(M        O       CD 

i 

i 

f    S    S 

co      i^      ~ 

1  i! 

o 

1 

X        CC        £ 

g 

§ 

1  i  1 

?j     2 

-iF      -* 

OS 

j£- 

III 

1 

1 

1  i  s 

CM         CM 

C?         CM 

00 

3§ 

ill 

1 

0 

Tt^            ^t*             (7^ 

»;?       O       co 
CO        CO        CM 

1     1 

i~ 

3 

III 

i 

1 

882 

01         ?l         1-1 

3  2 

«e 

1 

i  1  § 

1 

S 

1  S  § 

3    P 

g 

26 

3         CO         ^^ 
^f         CO 

s 

§ 

8   3   S 

^          1 

o 

a 

1 

38    £    § 

0 

S 

S    «     ' 

1           1 

•= 

3 

C?         O?         CM 

i 

00 

i      i      i 

1           1 

Jj 

V 

cs      t^       I 

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i      i      i 

1           1 

1 

0 

0        1-        0) 

01 

0 

01        -t         0 

CO        O 

|2 

160        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING. 

For  tubes  or  hollow  columns,  subtract  the  weight  that 
may  be  borne  by  a  column  of  the  size  of  the  internal 
diameter  of  the  tube  or  column.  The  thickness  of  metal 
should  not  be  less  than  one-twelfth  the  diameter. 


MATHEMATICAL   RULES,   ETC., 
FOR    THE   CONVENIENCE    OF  MECHANICS. 


Indicative  Characters  or  Signs. 

The  sign  +  (plus)  between  two  numbers  indicates  that  they 
are  to  be  added  together. 

The  sign  —  (minus)  indicates  that  the  number  placed  after 
it  is  to  be  subtracted  from  the  number  placed  before  it. 

The  sign  x  (times)  indicates  that  one  number  is  to  be  multi- 
plied by  another. 

The  sign -f  (divided  by)  indicates  that  the  number  on  the 
left  hand  is  to  be  divided  by  the  number  on  the  right  hand. 

The  sign  =  (equal  to)  indicates  that  the  result  of  the  figures 
before  it  amounts  to  the  number  placed  after  it. 

The  sign  ^  is  called  the  radical  sign ;  and,  if  it  has  a  figure 
2  placed  over  it,  it  signifies  that  the  square  root  of  the  number 
before  which  it  is  placed  is  required.  If  it  has  the  figure  3 
placed  over  it,  then  it  is  the  cube  rout  which  is  required. 

In  figuring  drawings,  feet  are  usually  indicated  by  a  single 
index,  and  inches  are  indicated  by  two  indices,  thus :  12'  8^"  is 
12  feet  8f  inches. 

Prime  Numbers. 

A  prime  number  is  a  number  that  cannot  be  divided  by  any 
other  number  without  leaving  a  remainder. 


MODERN   CARPENTRY   AND    BUILDING. 


161 


TABLE  OF  PRIME  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1,000. 

1 

59 

139   233  1  337 

439 

557 

653 

769 

883 

2 

01 

149 

239 

347 

443 

563 

659 

773 

887 

3 

07 

151   241 

349 

449 

569 

661 

787 

907 

5 

71 

157 

251 

353 

457 

571 

673 

797 

911 

7 

73 

163 

257 

359 

461 

577 

677 

809 

919 

11 

79 

167 

263 

367 

463 

587 

683 

811 

929 

13 

83 

173 

269 

373 

467 

593 

691 

821 

937 

17 

89 

179 

271 

379 

479 

599 

701 

823 

941 

19 

97 

181 

277 

383 

487 

601 

709 

827 

947 

23 

101 

191  |  281 

389 

491 

607 

719 

829 

953 

29 

103 

193 

283 

397 

499 

613 

727 

839 

967 

31 

107 

197 

293 

401 

503 

617 

733 

853 

971 

37 

109 

199 

307 

409 

509 

619 

739 

857 

977 

41 

113 

211 

311 

419 

521 

631 

743 

859 

983 

43 

127 

223 

313 

421 

523 

641 

751 

863 

991 

47 

131 

227 

317 

431 

541 

643 

757 

877 

997 

53 

137 

229 

331 

433 

547 

647 

761 

881 

Long-Measure  Table. 

12  inches  make 1  foot 

3  feet  make 1  yard 

5i  yards,  or  16|  feet,  make  ......  1  rod  or  pole 

40  rods  make 1  furlong 

8  furlongs  make 1  mile 

One  mile  contains  5,280  feet,  or  1,760  yards,  or  320  rods;  3 
miles  make  1  league;  6  feet=l  fathom. 


162         MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Surface,  or  Square  Measure. 

144  square  inches  make 1  square  foot 

9  square  feet  make 1  square  yard 

80j  square  yards  make    ........  1  square  rod 

160  square  rods  make 1  acre 

040  acres  make 1  square  mile 

Lathing  and  plastering  are  usually  reckoned  by  the  square 
yard.     Of  flooring,  slating,  etc.,  a  square  is  100  square  feet. 


Cubic,  or  Solid  Measure. 

1728  cubic  inches  make 1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet  make 1  cubic  yard 

16  cubic  feet  make 1  cord  foot 

8  cord  feet,  or  128  cubic  feet,  make    .  1  cord  of  wood 

A  pile  of  wood  8  feet  long,  4  feet  broad,  and  4  feet  high 
c'ontains  a  cord. 

A  cord  foot  is  1  foot  in  length  of  the  above  pile. 

A  perch  of  masonry  is  16£  feet  long,  1  foot  high,  and  18 
inches  thick  :  or  242  cubic  feet. 


To  reduce  Several   Fractions  to  their  Least  Common   De- 
nominator. 

The  numerator  of  a  fraction  is  the  number  above  the  line ; 
the  denominator  is  the  number  below  the  line. 

Rule.  —  1.  Find  the  least  common  multiple  of  the  denomi- 
nators for  a  new  denominator. 

2.  Divide  the  least  common  denominator  by  each  given  de- 
nominator, and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  corresponding 
numerator,  for  the  new  numerators. 


MODEL' X   CAHPKXTIiY  A\D   BUILDING,         163 

EXAMPLE. — Reduce  7,  :[,  £,  £,  and  V  to  the  least  common  de- 
nominator. 

2.2  —  4  —  3  —  6  —  8 


2 
2  X  2  X  3  x  2  =  24,  the  least  common  denominator. 

131 

2)24        ±  =  i$  4)24        -J  =  J,S  3)24        i=A 

12X1  =  12  0  X  3  =  18  8X1=8 

_5  J. 

6)24  £  =  i?  S)24_  i  =  -& 

4X5  =  20  3X1=3 

Explanation.  —  We  first  find  the  least  common  multiple  ot 
the  denominators,  2,  4,  3,  6,  and  8,  by  dividing  them  by  a  num- 
ber which  is  contained  in  one  or  moie  of  them;  and  this  quo- 
tient we  divide  again  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on  until  the 
division  is  complete ;  then  multiply  together  the  divisors,  and 
the  result  is  the  least  common  multiple  of  these  denominators, 
which  we  use  for  the  new  denominator.  Then  divide  this  new 
denominator  by  each  of  the  others,  and  multiply  this  quotient 
by  the  given  numerators. 

To  reduce  a  Fraction  to  a  Given  Denominator. 

It  sometimes  happens  in  figuring  out  work  that  the  frac- 
tions come  diiferent  from  any  marking  of  the  rule.  For  in- 
stance, it  may  come  in  ninths,  or  in  fourteenths ;  the  workman 
wants  to  know  how  many  eighths  and  sixteenths  a  certain  num- 
ber of  ninths  or  fourteenths  may  be.  Suppose  we  have  \\  of  an 
inch,  we  want  to  know  how  many  sixteenths  that  represents. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  required  denominator  by  the  numera- 
tor, and  divide  the  product  by  the  denominator  of  the  given 
fraction  :  the  result  will  be  the  required  numerator. 


164         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Thus    16,    the    required   denominator,   multiplied    by   11,    the 
numerator,  gives  17C;  which,  divided  by  14,  the  denominator  of 
the  given    fraction,    gives    12W,   the    new    numerator:  so  that 
11       12  A     3    4 
14        W=48tr°ng- 

To  reduce  Fractions  to  Decimals. 

Rule.  —  1.  Annex  ciphers  to  the  numerator,  and  divide  by 
the  denominator. 

2.  Point  off  in  the  quotient  as  many,  decimal  places  as  there- 
have  been  ciphers  annexed. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Reduce  i  to  a  decimal. 

Ans.  .125  (125  thousandths). 
8)1.000 
.125 

Simple  Proportion,  or  Rule  of  Three. 

Simple  Proportion  is  an  equality  between  two  simple  ratios. 

Ratio  is  the  relation,  in  respect  to  magnitude  or  value,  which 
one  quantity  or  number  has  to  another  of  the  same  kind ;  or  the 
quotient  arising  from  the  division  of  one  number  by  another : 
thus,  the  ratio  of  8  to  4  is  2,  since  8  is  2  times  4 ;  the  ratio  of  4 
to  8  is  |,  since  4  is  \  of  8. 

Rule. — Make  that  number  the  third  term  which  is. of  the 
same  kind  as  the  answer;  and  if,  from  the  nature  of  the  ques- 
tion, the  third  term  must  be  greater  than  the  fourth  term,  or 
answer,  make  the  greater  of  the  two  remaining  terms  the  first 
term,  and  the  smaller,  the  second;  but,  if  the  third  term  must 
be  less  than  the  fourth,  make  the  less  of  the  two  remaining 
terms  the  first,  and  the  greater,  the  second;  then  multiply 
the  second  and  third  terms  together,  and  divide  their  product 
by  the  first  term :  the  quotient  will  be  the  fourth  term,  or 
answer. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   PUILDING.         165 

EXAMPLES.  —  If  a  man  receives  $15  for  a  week's  work,  how 
much  shall  he  have  for  7  days'  work? 

da.  da.       $          $ 
6  :  7  :  :  15  :  (        ) 

_7 
6)105 
$17|  =  $17.50.  Ans. 

If  5  men  can  build  a  house  in  45  days,  how  long  will  it  take  8 
men? 

in.  in.       da.        da. 
8  :  5  :  :  45  :  (        ) 

5 
8)  £25 

28i  days.  Ans. 

Compound  Proportion. 

Compound  Proportion  is  an  expression  of  equality  between  a 
compound  and  a  simple  ratio. 

Rule. — Make  that  number  the  third  term  which  is  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  answer ;  of  the  remaining  numbers,  take  any 
two  that  are  of  the  same  kind,  and  consider  whether  an  answer 
depending  upon  these  alone  would  be  greater  or  less  than  the 
third  term,  and  place  them  as  directed  in  simple  proportion. 

Then  take  any  other  two  of  the  same  kind,  and  consider 
whether  an  answer  depending  only  upon  them  would  be  greater 
or  less  than  the  third  term,  and  arrange  them  accordingly ;  and 
so  on  until  all  are  used.  Multiply  the  product  of  the  second 
terms  by  the  third  term,  and  divide  the  result  by  the  product 
of  the  first  terms  :  the  quotient  will  be  the  fourth  term,  or 
answer. 

Example.  —  If  6  men  can  build  an  8-inch  brick  wall,  95  feet 
long  and  15  feet  high,  in  3  days,  how  long  will  it  take  5  men 
to  build  a  12-inch  wall,  40  feet  long  and  9  feet  high,  the  days 
being  10  hours  long  in  both  cases  ? 


166         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

5  men         :    6  men      1 

8in'          :12in'  ::3da.  if**') 

95  long        :  40  long 

15  high        :    9  high      j 

5  X  8  X  95  X  15  =  57000 

6  x  12  X  40  x  9  x  3  =  77760  ~  57000  =  1.36+  days  =  1  day  3  hours 

36  +  minutes. 

Example.  —  I  paid  $35  for  the  labor  of  2  men  for  6  days, 
they  working  12  hours  daily.  How  much  ought  I  to  pay  4 
men  for  7  days'  work,  10  hours  being  reckoned  a  day's  work, 
and  paying  at  the  same  rate  per  hour  as  I  paid  the  first  men  ? 

2  men        :    4  men     ^  $ 

6  da.  :    7  da.  :  :  $35  :  (      ) 
12  h.             :  10  h.         J 

2  x  6  x  12  =  144 

4  x  7  x  10  x  35  ==  9800  -M44  =  68.05.     Ans.  —$68.05. 

Square  Root. 

The  Square  Root  of  any  number  is  that  number  which,  mul- 
tiplied by  itself,  will  produce  the  given  number. 

Rule  for  extracting  the  Square  Root.  — 1.  Point  off  the  given 
number  into  periods  of  two  figures  each ;  counting  from  units' 
place  toward  the  left  in  whole  numbers,  and  toward  the  right  in 
decimals. 

2.  Find  the  greatest  square  number  in  the  left-hand  period, 
and  write  its  root  for  the. first  figure  in  the  root;  subtract  the 
square  number  from  the  left-hand  period,  and  to  the  remainder 
bring  down  the  next  period  for  a  dividend. 

3.  At  the  left  of  the  dividend  write  twice  the  first  figure  of 
the  root,  and  annex  one  cipher  for  a  trial  divisor ;  divide  the 
dividend  by  the  trial   divisor,  and  write   the   quotient  for  a 
trial  figure  in  the  root. 

4.  Add  the  trial  figure  of  the  root  to  the  trial  divisor  for  a 
complete  divisor;   multiply  the  complete   divisor  by  the   trial 


UODKRX   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILD1XG. 


167 


figure  in  the  root,  and  subtract  the  product  from  the  dividend; 
and  to  the  remainder  bring  down  the  next  period  for  a  new 
dividend. 

.">.  To  the  last  complete  divisor  add  the  last  figure  of  the 
root,  and  to  the  sum  annex  one  cipher  for  a  new  trial  divisor, 
with  which  proceed  as  before. 

Xote  1. — If  at  any  time  the  product  be  greater  than  the 
dividend,  diminish  the  trial  figure  of  the  root,  and  correct  the 
c  r  ro  neons  work. 

Note  2.  —  The  left-hand  period  may  contain  but  one  figure. 

Note  3. — If  the  dividend  does  not  contain  the  divisor,  a 
cipher  must  be  placed  in  the  root,  a«4  also  at  the  right  of  the 
divisor  ;  then,  after  bringing  down  the  next  period,  this  last 
divisor  must  be  used  as  the  divisor  of  the  new  dividend. 

Note  4-  — When  there  is  a  remainder  after  extracting  the 
root  of  a  number,  periods  of  ciphers  may  be  annexed;  and 
the  figures  of  the  root  thus  obtained  will  be  decimals. 

Note  5.  —  The  square  root  of  a  fraction  may  be  obtained  by 
extracting  the  square  roots  of  the  numerator  and  denominator 
separately,  providing  the  terms  are  perfect  squares;  otherwise 
the  fractions  must  first  be  reduced  to  decimals. 

EXAMPLES.  —  What  is  the  square  root  of  406457.2516? 


OPEIIATIOX. 


40,64,57.25,16(637.54.  Am. 
36 


Trial  divisor, 
Complete  divisor, 
Trial 
Complete      " 
Trial 
Complete      " 
Trial 
Complete      " 

120 
123 

464 
369 

1260 
1267 

9557 

8869 

1274.0 
1274.5 

688.25 
637.25 

1275.00 
1275.04 

51.0016 
51.0016 

168         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


What  is  the  square  root  of  2  ? 


2.              ( 
1 

Trial  divisor,           20 
Complete  divisor,   24 

100 

96 

Trial             "         280 
Complete      "          281 

400 

281 

Trial              "          2820 
Complete      "          2824 

11900 
11296 

Trial              "          28280 
Complete      "          28282 

60400 
56564 

( 1.4142 +.    Ans. 


Application  of  Square  Root. 

A  Triangle  is  a  figure  having  three  sides  and  three  angles  01 
corners. 

A  Rifjlit-angled  Triangle  is  a  figure  having  three  sides  and 
three  angles,  one  of  which  is  a  right  angle. 

In  every  right-angled  triangle,  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  base  and  perpendicu- 
lar. 


Base. 

Given  the  base  and  perpendicular,  to  find  the  hypothenuse. 

Rule.  —  Add  the  square  of  the  base  to  the  square  of  the 
perpendicular,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum:  the 
result  is  the  hypothenuse. 

Given  one  side  and  the  hypothenuse,  to  find  the  other  side. 

Rule.  —  Subtract  the  square   of  the   given   side  from  the 


MODERN    CAEPKXTRY  AND   BUILUING.          169 

square  of  the  hypothec  use,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the 
"emainder :  the  result  will  be  the  other  side. 

Examples. 

1.  Measure  off  on  the  end  sill  6  feet  from  the  corner  of  the 
louse,  and  on  the  side  sill  8  feet  from  the  same  corner:  what 
.mist  be  the  length  of  a  pole  that  shall  just  reach  the  outside  of 
the  sills  at  those  points,  when  the  sills  are  square?     Axs.  —  10 
feet. 

The  square  of  one  side  is  6  x  6  =  36  ;  the  square  of  the  other 
side  is  8  x  8  =  64  +  36=100,  the  square  root  of  which  is  10. 

2.  A  brace  has  a  run  of  4  feet  x  3  feet  6  inches.     What  is 
the  length  of  the  brace  ? 

Reduce  the  feet  and  inches  to  inches,  in  this  case  ;  square  the 
length  of  each  run  and  extract  the  square  root  of  their  sum : 
the  result  will  be  the  length  of  the  brace  in  inches. 

3.  A  square  measures  6  feet  on  a  side.     What  will  be  the 
diameter  of  a  circle  that  shall  just  enclose  it? 

The  diagonal  of  the  square  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  circle. 

All  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  square*  of  their  radii,  diame- 
ters, or  circumferences. 

To  find  the  diameter  or  circumference  of  a  circle  which  shall 
contain  a  certain  number  of  times  the  area  of  a  given  circle  :  — 

Rule.  —  Square  the  given  diameter  or  circumference,  and 
state  the  question  as  in  proportion  ;  and  the  fourth  term  is  the 
square  of  the  required  answer,  extracting  the  square  root  of 
which  gives  the  answer. 

Examples. 

1.  If  a  one-inch  rope  will  sustain  a  weight  of  500  Ibs.,  how 
Tiiuch   will  a  two-inch  rope  sustain?     1x1  :  2x2  :  :  500  Ibs.: 
(answer).     Axs.  — 2,000  Ibs. 

2.  If  a  f-inch  pipe  will  empty  a  cistern  in  1  hour  17  min- 
utes, how  long  will  it  take  a  1^-inch  pipe  to  do  it  ?     |  x  f  : 
£x  f  :  :  77  minutes  :  (answer).     ANS.  —  19^  minutes. 


170         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

3.  If  a  one-inch  rope  will  sustain  500  Ibs.,  what  is  the  size 
of  a  rope  to  sustain  1,000  Ibs.  ?    500  :  1,000  :  :  1  x  1  :  (the  square 
of  the  answer)  =  2,  the  square  root  of  which  is  1|-+.     Axs.  — 
If  +  inches. 

4.  If   a   chain   made  of   ^-inch   round   iron   will  sustain  a 
weight  of  1£  tons,  of  what  sized  iron  should  a  chain  be  made  to 
sustain  a  weight  of  3  tons  ?     1 J  :  0  :  :  -J  x  J  :  (the  square  of  the 
answer)  =  |,  the  square  root  of  which  is  .353+  =  almost  f  inch: 
therefore  a  chain  made  of  f-inch  round  iron  is  rather  more  than 
twice  as  strong  as  one  made  of  J-iuch  iron. 


MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


171 


TABLE  OF  SQUARE  ROOTS  FKOM  1  TO  100,  INCLUSIVE. 

Num- 
ber. 

Square 
Root. 

Num- 
ber. 

Square 
Root. 

Num- 
ber. 

Square 
Root. 

Num- 
ber. 

Square 
Root. 

1 

1.0 

26 

5.09902 

51 

7.14143 

76 

S.  7  1779 

2 

1.41421 

27 

5.19615 

52 

7.2111 

77 

8.77496 

3 

1.73205 

28 

5.2915 

53 

7.28011 

78 

8.83176 

4 

2.0 

29 

5.38517 

54 

7.34847 

79 

8.88819 

5 

2.23607 

30 

5  .  47723 

55 

7.4162 

80 

8.944 

G 

2.44948 

31 

5.56776 

56 

7.48332 

81 

9.0 

1 

2.64575 

32 

5.65685 

57 

7.54983 

82 

9.05538 

8 

2.82843 

33 

5.74456 

58 

7.61577 

S3 

9.11043 

9 

3.0 

34 

5.83095 

59 

7.68115 

84 

9.16515 

10 

3.16228 

35 

5.91608 

60 

7.74597 

85 

9.21955 

11 

3.31663 

36 

6.0 

61 

7.81025 

86 

9.27362 

12 

3.4641 

37 

6.08276 

62 

7.87401 

87 

9.32738 

13 

3.60555 

38 

6.16441 

63 

7.93725 

88 

9.38083 

14 

3.74166 

39 

6.245 

64 

8.0 

89 

9.43398 

15 

3.87298 

40 

6.32456 

65 

8.06226 

90 

9.48683 

16 

4.0 

41 

6.40312 

66 

8.12404 

91 

9.53939 

17 

4.12311 

42 

6.48074 

67 

8.18535 

92 

9.59166 

18 

4.24264 

43 

6.55744 

68 

8.24621 

93 

9.64365 

19 

4.3589 

44 

6.63325 

69 

8.30662 

94 

9.095.% 

20 

4.47214 

45 

6.7082 

70 

8.3666 

95 

9.74679 

21 

4.58258 

46 

6.7823 

71 

8.42615 

96 

9.79796 

22 

4.69042 

47 

6.85566 

72 

8.48528 

97 

9.84886 

23 

4.79583 

48 

6.9282 

73 

8.544 

98 

9.89949 

24 

4.89898 

49 

7.0 

74 

8.60233 

99 

9.94987 

25 
i     . 

5.0 

50 

7.07107 

75 

8.66025 

100 

10.0 

172         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Cube  Root. 

The  Cube  Root  is  the  root  of  a  third  power :  it  is  called  cube 
root  because  the  cube  or  third  power  of  any  number  represents 
the  contents  of  a  cubic  body  of  which  the  cube  root  is  the 
length  or  breadth  of  one  of  the  sides. 

Rule  for  extracting  the  Cube  Root.  —  1.  Point  off  the  given  num- 
ber into  periods  of  three  figures  each,  counting  from  units'  place 
toward  the  left  in  whole  numbers,  and  toward  the  right  in  deci- 
mals. 

2.  Find  the  greatest  cube  in  the  left-hand  period,  and  write 
its  root  for  the  first  figure  in  the   required  root ;  subtract  the 
^ube  from  the  left-hand  period,   and  to  the  remainder  bring 
iown  the  next  period  for  a  dividend. 

3.  At  the  left  of  the  dividend  write  three  times  the  square 
of  the  first  figure  of  the  root,  and  annex  two  ciphers  for  a  tria? 
divisor ;  divide  the  dividend  by  the  trial  divisor,  and  write  the 
quotient  for  a  trial  figure  in  the  root. 

4.  Annex  the  trial  figure  to  three  times  the  former  figure, 
and  write  the  result  in  a  column  marked  1,  one  line  below  the 
trial  divisor ;  multiply  this  term  by  the   trial   figure,  and  write 
the  product  on  the  same  line  in  a  column  marked  2  ;  add  this 
term  as  a  correction  to  the  trial  divisor,  and  the  result  will  be 
the  complete  divisor. 

5.  Multiply  the  complete  divisor  by  the  trial  figure,  and  sub- 
tract the  product  from  the  dividend ;    and   to   the   remainder 
bring  down  the  next  period  for  a  new  dividend. 

6.  Add  the   square  of  the   last  figure  of  the  root,  the  last 
term  in  column  2,  and  the  complete  divisor  together,  and  annex 
two  ciphers  for  a  new  trial  divisor,  with  which  obtain  another 
trial  figure  in  the  root. 

7.  Multiply  the  unit  figure  of  the  last  term  in  column  1  by 
3,  and  annex  the  trial  figure  of  the  root,  for  the  next  term  of 
column  2 ;  add  this  term  to  the  trial  divisor  for  a  complete 
divisor,  with  which  proceed  as  before. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    HUILDJNG.         173 


Note  1.  — If  at  any  time  the  product  be  greater  than  the  divi- 
dend, diminish  the  trial  figure  of  the  root,  and  correct  the  erro- 
neous work. 

Note.  2.  —  If  a  cipher  occur  in  the  root,  annex  two  more 
ciphers  to  the  trial  divisor,  and  another  period  to  the  dividend ; 
then  proceed  as  before  with  column  1,  annexing  both  ciphers 
and  trial  figure. 

EXAMPLE.  —  What  is  the  cube  root  of  79.112  ? 

OPERATION. 

79.112  (4.2928+.  Ans. 
04. 


No.  1. 
122 

No.  2. 
244 

4800 
5044 

15112 

10088 

1269 

11421 

529200 
540621 

5024000 
4865589 

12872 

25744 

55212300 
55238044 

158411000 
110476088 

128768 

1030144 

5526379200 
5527409344 

47934912000 
44219274752 

3714637248  rein. 

Application  of  the  Cube  Root. 

I  wish  to  make  a  box,  the  length,  breadth,  and  depth  of  which 
are  to  be  equal,  to  hold  50  bushels  of  grain.  What  is  the 
length  of  one  side  of  this  box  ? 

We  first  find  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  50  bushels,  then 
extract  the  cube  root :  the  result  is  the  length  or  depth  of  the 
box  in  inches. 

Cubes  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  sides. 

Spheres  (round  balls)  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters  or  circumferences. 

To  find  the  side,  diameter,  circumference,  or  altitude  of  any 
.solid  which  is  similar  to  a  given  solid  :  — 


174         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Rule. — State  the  question  as  in  proportion,  and  cube  the- 
given  sides,  diameters,  circumferences,  or  altitudes :  the  cube 
root  of  the  fourth  term  of  the  proportion  is  the  required 
answer. 

Example.  —  If  a  two-inch  ball  weighs  2  pounds,  what  is  the 
diameter  of  a  ball  that  weighs  twice  that  ? 

2  pounds :  4  pounds : :  2x2x2  inches :  (the  cube  of  the 
answer). 

To  find  the  cubical  contents  or  weight  of  any  solid  which  is 
similar  to  a  given  solid. 

Rule.  —  State  the  question  as  in  proportion,  and  cube  the 
given  sides,  diameters,  circumferences,  or  altitudes :  the  fourth 
term  of  the  proportion  is  the  required  answer. 

Examples.  —  If  a  ball  4  inches  in  diameter  weighs  50  pounds, 
what  is  the  weight  of  a  ball  6  inches  in  diameter? 

4x4x4:  6x6x6::  50  pounds :  (the  answer). 

If  a  three-inch  cube  weighs  7  pounds,  what  is  the  weight  of  a 
four-inch  cube  ? 

3x3x3:  4x4x4::  7  pounds  :  (the  answer). 

Mensuration. 

To  find  the  Area  of  a  Square  or  Parallelogram.  —  Multiply  the 
length  by  the  breadth. 

To  find  the  Area  of  a  Tapering  Board. — Multiply  the  length 
in  feet,  by  the  breadth  of  the  middle  in  inches,  and  divide  by 
12;  or  add  together  the  width  of  the  ends  in  inches,  and  multi- 
ply the  length  by  half  of  this  sum,  and  divide  by  12  :  the  result 
is  the  number  of  square  feet  contained  in  the  board. 

To  find  the  Area  of  a  Rhombus  or  Rhomboid.  — Multiply  the 
length  of  the  side,  by  the  breadth  measured  square  across. 

To  find  the  Area  of  any  Triangle.  —  Multiply  the  base  by  half 
of  the  perpendicular,  or  multiply  half  the  base  by  the  perpen- 
dicular. 

To  find  the  Area  of  a  Circle. — Multiply  the  square  of  the; 
diameter  by  .7854. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING,         175 

To  find  the  Circumference  of  a  Circle.  — Multiply  the  diameter 
by  3.1416. 

To  find  the  Surface  Area  of  a  Globe. — Multiply  the  circum- 
ference by  the  diameter. 

To  find  the  Solid  Contents  of  a  Globe. — Multiply  the  surface 
area  by  *  of  the  diameter. 

To  find  tlte  Area  of  a  Riny. — Multiply  the  sum  of  the 
inside  and  the  outside  diameters  by  their  difference,  and  multi- 
ply the  product  thus  obtained  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  Side  of  a  Square  containing  the  Same  Area  as  a 
Gicen  Circle.  —  Multiply  the  diameter  by  .886227. 

To  find  the  Side  of  an  Inscribed  Square.  —  Multiply  the 
diameter  by  .707. 

To  find  the  Area  of  an  Ellipse.  —  Multiply  the  longer  diame- 
ter by  the  shorter,  and  multiply  this  product  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  Solid  Contents  of  a  Cylinder  (as  a  log). — Multi- 
ply the  area  of  the  end  by  the  length. 

To  find  the.  Solid  Contents  of  Pyramids  or  Cones.  —  Multiply 
the  area  of  the  base  by  £  of  the  height. 

To  find  the  Cubical  Contents  of  (he  Frustum  of  a  Cone  (prac- 
tical application,  find  the  cubical  contents  of  a  tapering,  round 
log).  — Multiply  together  the  diameters  of  the  large  and  of  the 
small  ends,  and  to  the  product  add  £  of  the  square  of  the  dif- 
ference of  the  diameters;  then  multiply  this  sum  by  .7854, 
which  will  give  the  average  area;  multiply  this  area  by  the 
length,  and  the  product  will  be  the  cubical  contents. 


176 


MODERN   CARPENTRY   AND   BUILDING 


CIRCLES. 

Diain. 

Circuinf. 

Area. 

Diain. 

Circumf. 

Area. 

Diain. 

Circuinf. 

Area. 

/4 

.049 

.00019 

42 

1492 

17.72 

14} 

46.33 

170.87 

.0981 

.00076 

5 

15.7 

19.635 

15 

47.12 

176.71 

X 

.1963 

.00306 

f>  £ 

16.49 

21.647 

15* 

47.9 

182.65 

* 

.3927 

.01227 

5* 

17.27 

23.758 

48.69 

188.69 

A 

.589 

.02761 

5} 

18.06 

25.967 

15- 

4948 

194.82 

.7854 

.04908 

6 

18.84 

28.274 

16 

50.26 

201.06 

Tt> 

.9817 

.07669 

6* 

19.63 

30.679 

16* 

51.05 

207.39 

.2 

1.178 

.1104 

6* 

20.42 

33.183 

16* 

51.83 

213.82 

~rb 

1.374 

.1503 

21.2 

35.784 

16$ 

52.62 

220.35 

4 

1.57 

.1963 

*7 

21.99 

38.484 

17 

53.4 

22(5.98 

"^ 

1.767 

.2485 

7* 

22.77 

41.282 

17* 

54.19 

233.7 

1.963 

.3067 

7* 

23.56 

44.178 

17* 

54.97 

240.52 

11 

2.159 

.3712 

7* 

24.34 

47.173 

17} 

55.76 

247.45 

f 

2.356 

.4417 

8 

25.13 

50.265 

18 

56.54 

254.46 

2.552 

.5184 

8* 

25.91 

53.456 

18* 

57.33 

261.58 

I 

2.748 

.6013 

8* 

26.7 

56.745 

18* 

58.11 

268.8 

H 

2.945 

.6902 

8f 

27.48 

60.132 

ISr 

58.9 

276.11 

3.1416 

.7854 

9 

28.27 

63.617 

19 

59.69 

283.52 

1 

3,534 

.994 

9* 

29.05 

67.2 

19* 

60.47 

291.03 

1 

3.927 

1.227 

9* 

29.84 

70.882 

19* 

61.26 

298.64 

3. 

4.319 

1.484 

9r 

30.63 

74662 

62.04 

306.35 

1 

4.712 

1.767 

10 

31.41 

78.539 

204 

62.83 

314.16 

£ 

5.105 

2.073 

10* 

32.2 

82.516 

20* 

63.61 

322.06 

3 

5.497 

2.405 

10* 

32.98 

86.59 

20* 

644 

330.06 

7 

5.89 

2.761 

10} 

33.77 

90.762 

65.18 

338.16 

2 

6.283 

3.141 

11 

34.55 

95.033 

214 

65.97 

346.36 

21 

6.675 

3.546 

11* 

35.34 

99.402 

21* 

66.75 

354.65 

21 

7.068 

3.976 

11* 

36.12 

103.86 

21* 

67.54 

363.05 

21 

7.461 

4.43 

11- 

36.91 

108.43 

21} 

68.32 

371.54 

2* 

7.854 

4.908 

12 

37.69 

113.09 

22 

69.11 

380.13 

2  1 

8.246 

5.411 

12* 

38.48 

117.85 

22* 

699 

388.82 

2  4 

8.639 

5.939 

12* 

39.27 

122.71 

22* 

70.68 

397.6 

2* 

9.032 

6.491 

123- 

40.05 

127.67 

22f 

71.47 

406.49 

3 

9.424 

7.068 

13 

40.84 

132.73 

23 

72.25 

415.47 

3* 

10.21 

8.295 

13} 

41.62 

137.88 

23* 

73.04 

424.55 

3* 

10.99 

9.621 

13* 

42.41 

143.13 

23* 

73.82 

433.73 

33 

11.78 

11.044 

135 

43.19 

148.48 

23| 

74.61 

443.01 

4 

12.56 

12.566 

14 

43.98 

153  93 

24 

75.39 

452  39 

4* 

13.35 

14.186 

14* 

44.76 

159.48 

14  13 

15.904 

14* 

45.55 

165.13 

MODERN  CAEPENTKY  AND   BUILD  JX(r.         Ill 


DECIMAL  PARTS  OF  INCHES. 


u  n,\si*Lfi.ij  j.  -tt.ivj.i3  \jc  Ai^v^nj^o.        ±JXi\JiaiAijo  Ur  JJ  £•£/  1. 

Dec. 

Frac. 

Dec. 

Frac. 

Dec. 

Frac. 

Inches. 

.03125 

A 

.53125 

i  A 

.01041 

& 

i  inch. 

.0625 

A 

.5625 

i  A- 

.02083 

iV 

i  *< 

4 

:  09375 

A 

.59375 

i  & 

.03125 

A 

f    " 

.125 

i 

.625 

t 

.04166 

A 

7    " 

.15625 

i  & 

.65625 

f   'a'-/ 

.05208 

^* 

i    « 

8 

.1875 

i  A 

.6875 

*  A 

.0625 

A 

3    « 
4 

.21875 

i  A 

.71875 

1  A 

.07291 

A 

7    « 

.25 

i 

.75 

I 

.0833 

A 

1    U' 

.28125 

-I'  A 

.78125 

I  A 

.1666 

i 

2  inches. 

.3125 

i  A 

.8125 

t  A- 

.25 

i 

3   " 

.34375 

-i  A 

.84375 

}  A 

.3333 

i 

4   " 

.375 

1 

.875 

7 

8 

.4166 

A 

5   " 

.40625 

I  3V 

.90625 

I  A 

.5 

'i 

6   " 

.4375 

1  A 

.9375 

s  A 

.5833 

i'-j 

7   " 

.46875 

1  & 

.96875 

X  & 

.6666 

3 

8   " 

.5 

i 

1. 

i. 

.75 

QOOO 

i 

5 

9   " 

1/-V       « 

.OOOO 

.9166 

"l> 
tt 

1U 

11   " 

1. 

1. 

12   " 

178         MODERN  CANPENTEY  AND   BUILDING. 


THE  METRIC    SYSTEM.     TABLES  AUTHORIZED 

BY  CONGRESS. 
MEASURES   OF  LENGTH. 


Metric  Denominations  and  Values. 

Equivalents  in  Denominations 
in  Use. 

10,000   metres  

6.2137  miles. 

(  0.62137  mile,  or  3,280  feet 
I      10  inches. 

328  feet  and  1  inch. 
393.7  inches. 
39.37  inches. 
3.937  inches. 
0.3937  inch. 
0.0394  inch. 

Kilometre  

1,000  metres  

Hectometre  

100  metres 

METRE    

Decimetre  

I-Q   of  a  metre  

Millimetre  

Y  QQ-Q   of  a  metre  

MEASURES   OF  SURFACES. 


Metric  Denominations  and  Values. 

Equivalents  in  Denominations 
in  Use. 

10,000  square  metres  
100  square  metres  

2.471  acres. 
119.6  square  yards. 
1550  square  inches. 

A.  re   . 

CENTARE  

MEASURES    OF   CAPACITY. 


Metric  Denominations  and  Values. 


Equivalents  in  Denominations 
in  Use. 


Names. 

No.  of 
litres. 

Cubic  Measure. 

Dry  Measure. 

Liquid  or  Wine 
Measure. 

Kilolitre,  or  stere, 
Hectolitre  
Decalitre  

1,000 
100 
10 

1 

iV 

y¥ 
ToSU 

1  cubic  metre  
yL  of  a  cubic  metre  .  .  . 
10  cubic  decimetres  .  . 
1  cubic  decimetre  
YQ  of  a  cubic  decimetre, 
10  cubic  centimetres.  . 
1  cubic  centimetre.  .  .  . 

1.308cu.yd.. 
2bu.  3.35  pk. 
9.08  quarts  .  . 
0.908  quart  .  . 
6.1022  cu.  in.. 
0.6102  cu.in.. 
0.061  cu.in... 

264.17  gallons. 
26.417  gallons. 
2.6417  gallons. 
1.0567  quarts. 
0.845  gill. 
0.338  fluid  oz. 
0.27  fluid  dr. 

LITRE 

Decilitre  ...   . 

Centilitre  
Millilitre  .  . 

MODKRX   CAHPENTRY  AXD   UU1LD1NG. 


179 


WEIGHTS. 


Metric  Denominations  ami  Values. 

Equivalents 
in  Denominations 
in  Use. 

Names. 

No.  of 
grammes. 

Weight  of  what  quantity  of 
water  at  maximum  density. 

Avoirdupois 
Weight. 

Millier,  or  tonneau.  . 
Quintal    

1,000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
1 

t 

YTT 

TTJ1HT 

1  cubic  metre    

2204.6  pounds. 
220.46  pounds. 
22.046  pounds. 
2.2046  pounds. 
3.5274  ounces. 
0.3527  ounce. 
15.432  grains. 
1.5432  grain. 
0.1543  grain. 
0.0154  grain. 

1  hectolitre 

Myriagramrne  

10  litres  

Kilogramme,  or  kilo, 

1  litre  

10  cubic  centimetres  
1  cubic  centimetre  
y*j  of  a  cubic  centimetre  .  .  . 
1C  cubic  millimetre*  

ORAMME  

Decigramme  

Milligramme  

/ 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  A  HOUSE. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  A  HOUSE  TO  BE  ERECTED  FOR  JOHN 
SMITH,  ESQ.,  AT  PLEASANTVILLE,  MASS. 


This  house  is  to  be  set  so  that  the  bay  window  (or 
piazza)  shall  be  15  feet  from  the  line  that  divides  the  lot 
of  land  from  the  street  or  sidewalk,  and  so  that  no  part 
shall  be  nearer  than  12  feet  from  the  eastern  boundary 
line  (piazza  and  steps  not  included). 

Remove  the  loam  from  the  place  where  the  house  is  to 
stand,  and  also  from  a  space  8  feet  wide  all  around  out- 
side, and  stack  it  up  where  it  will  be  out  of  the  way,  and 
convenient  to  replace  after  grading  is  done. 

The  highest  point  of  cellar  bottom  is  to  be  5  feet  below 
the  highest  point  of  sidewalk  grade  abreast  of  the  house, 
and  is  to  slope  6  inches  deeper  at  one  corner  so  it  can  be 
drained  if  necessary. 

The  cellar  wall  is  to  be  laid  dry  (starting  in  a  trench  6 
inches  below  cellar  bottom),  and  afterwards  well  pointed 
with  mortar. 

The  top  of  underpinning  is  to  be  3  feet  above  highest 
point  of  sidewalk  (making  cellar  8  feet  deep  in  least 
place)  ;  *  and  the  final  grading  is  to  be  done  so  as  to 

*  This  is  none  too  much  for  a  furnace. 
180 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.        181 

show  2  feet  of  underpinning,*  thus  giving  a  slope  of  1  foot 
in  15. 

CELLAR  BOTTOM. — Level  off  the  cellar  bottom,  settle  it 
thoroughly  and  cover  it  flush  and  smooth  throughout  with 
cement  concrete,  in  three  parts  of  clean,  coarse,  sharp 
gravel  and  one  part  of  good  cement,  three  inches  deep, 
and  finished  with  true  and  even  surface. 

DRAINS. — All  underground  drain  pipes  to  be  of  the 
best  quality  vitrified  pipe,  any  exposed  drains  to  be  4-inch 
iron  pipe  ;  in  sizes,  etc.,  as  marked  on  plans.  These  pipes 
to  be  properly  trapped,  graded  and  the  joints  cemented 
tight.  The  roof  leaders  and  all  necessary  waste  and  soil 
pipes  of  the  building  as  shown  by  the  drawings,  to  be  con- 
nected ;  also  build  all  grease  traps  and  catch  basins — 
which  must  have  stone  covers, — where  shown  by  ans  ; 
put  in  all  traps  where  shown ;  use  bends  and  curves  for  all 
crooks,  whether  vertical  or  horizontal. 

Make  all  joints  clean  and  tight,  of  cement,  and  make 
perfectly  smooth  on  inside  at  same ;  supply  each  trap  with 
an  opening  or  trap  screw  on  top  so  that  it  can  be  cleaned 
out  easily  if  necessary.  All  pipe  to  be  laid  on  a  true  and 
€ven  grade  with  as  much  fall  given  them  as  possible,  and 
all  junctions  to  be  in  one  piece  and  of  such  shape  as  is 
necessary  to  make  all  the  different  connections  required. 

CISTERN. — Build  a  cistern  as  shown,  5  feet  in  diameter 
and  6  feet  deep,  lay  the  walls  of  hard  brick  4  inches  thick, 
and  pack  the  earth  against  them  when  dry,  arch  and  neck 
4  inches  thick  ;  bottom  to  be  laid  in  two  courses  of  brick, 
laid  flat,  the  whole  laid  in  and  smoothly  coated  on  the 
inside  with  cement.  Lay  a  strong,  rough  flag  over  man- 

*  This  allows  for  good  sized  cellar  -windows. 


182         MODERN  CAEPENTBY    AND   BUILDING. 

hole  in  the  neck;  connect  the  cistern  with  house  leaders 
through  6-inch  vitrified  pipe,  laid  down  clear  of  frost. 
Lay  a  6-inch  drain  overflow  connected  closely  with  the 
cistern  near  its  top  and  on  a  proper  and  sufficient  grade? 
trap  it  and  connect  with  drain  to  its  individual  cesspool 
at  the  most  convenient  point  for  its  proper  operation. 

CESSPOOLS. — Construct  a  cesspool  8  feet  in  diameter 
and  10  feet  deep  in  the  clear,  to  be  properly  stoned  up: 
draw  in  on  top  in  a  substantial  manner ;  leave  man-hole 
with  cover  of  heavy  flag-stone.  Make  the  necessary  con- 
nections with  all  drains  to  the  same.  When  there  is 
a  cistern,  build  a  separate  cesspool  with  stone  walls  laid 
dry  and  5  feet  in  diameter  and  6  feet  deep  for  the  over- 
flow from  the  same.  Cesspools  to  be  located  where 
shown .  * 

PRIVY  VAULT. — Build  a  privy  vault  4  feet  by  4  feet  in 
size  and  4  feet  deep,  laid  up  with  good  hard  bricks  laid  in 
cement,  f 

SIZES  OF  TIMBERS. — Sills  6x8  inches.  First  and  sec- 
ond story  floor  timbers  2x8  inches,  16  inches  apart. 
Attic  floor  timbers  and  rafters  2x6  inches,  18  inches  and 
24  inches  apart  respectively. 

Posts  and  girts  4x8  inches.  Window  and  door  stud- 
ding and  braces  3x4  inches.  Outside  studding  and  main 
partitions  2x4  inches,  16  inches  apart.  Other  partition 
studding  2x3  inches. 

Plates  2x4  inches,  doubled.  All  to  be  best  quality  of 
spruce. 

*  If  there  are  sewers,  omit  cesspools  and  properly  connect  to  the  sewers. 

t  If  there  are  sewers,  it  is  preferable  to  omit  privy  and  put  in  water  closets ; 
and  even  though  there  are  no  sewers,  water  closets  can  be  connected  to  the 
cesspool. 


MODERN    CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         183 

Boardings  to  be  best  quality  spruce  or  hemlock,  square 
edges  ;  attic  boarding  to  have  planed  side  turned  inwards. 

SHINGLES. — Roof  is  to  be  covered  with  the  best  clear 
pine  or  cedar  shingles  laid  4£  inches  to  the  weather  with 
wide  flashings  of  4  Ib.  lead  or  14  oz.  copper  wherever 
needed. 

CLAPBOARDS. — To  be  best  quality  of  clear  pine.  The 
walls  are  to  be  covered  with  a  good  thickness  of  water 
proof  paper  (not  tarred)  before  clapboarding,  and  all 
window  tops,  water  cants,  etc.,  are  to  be  properly  flashed. 

TIN  ROOFS  to  have  very  best  quality  of  tin,  put  on  in 
best  manner,  and  soldered  with  rosin. 

LATHING  AND  PLASTERING. — All  walls,  partitions  and 
ceilings  to  be  lathed  and  plastered,  two  coats,  excepting 
ceiling  of  cellar,  which  is  to  have  only  one  coat  of  plaster. 

COLD  AIR  DUCT  FOR  FURNACE. — Construct  a  frame  of 
2  inch  plank,  (same  as  cellar  window  frames)  to  be  built 
in  underpinning  to  admit  the  cold  air,  and  cover  with  coarse 
wire  netting;  construct  cold  air  passages  from  this  open- 
ing to  furnace,  and  make  it  air  tight,  and  to  suit  the 
requirements;  put  in  a  wooden  slide  damper  inside  of  cellar 
wall,  and  make  the  whole  complete  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  furnace  man. 

COAL  BINS  to  be  built  as  shown. 

PRIVY. — Construct  privy  4x5  feet,  allowing  vault  to 
project  1J  or  2  feet  on  back  for  convenince  of  cleaning 
out.  Privy  to  be  framed  of  planed  and  chamfered  joists, 
and  boarded  with  selected  boards  having  planed  surface 
put  inside.  The  outside  to  be  properly  trimmed  with 
corner  boards,  etc.,  and  covered  with  a  good  quality  of 
clapboards,  fastened  on  with  large  shingle  nails,  so  as  not 
to  spall  off  the  inside  of  the  boarding. 


184         MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   WILDING. 

Projecting  part  of  vault  to  have  a  slanting  hinge  cover. 

PLUMBING. — Furnish  all  materials  and  perform  all 
labor  requisite  and  necessary  for  putting  up  and  complet- 
ing all  the  plumbing  work,  in  a  good  and  thoroughly  work- 
manlike manner,  according  to  the  drawings  and  these 
specifications  and  their  full  intent  and  meaning.  Where 
the  specifications  vary  or  conflict  with  the  drawings,  the 
contractor  is  to  be  governed  by  the  specifications.  All 
local  laws  to  be  complied  with,  even  if  they  conflict  with 
anything  in  these  specifications.  All  the  cutting  for  the 
pipes  will  be  done  by  the  carpenter,  and  then  only  close 
to  bearings.  All  horizontal  and  vertical  pipe  connections 
to  be  made  with  iron  hooks,  braces  or  hangers, —  all  Y 
branches  and  one-eighth  bends.  All  cast  iron  pipes  to  be 
properly  supported  and  secured  with  large  joints  made 
with  oakum  and  run  with  molten  lead  well  calked. 

All  water  service  pipes  must  be  put  np  on  inch-thick 
stripping  or  in  cases  to  be  prepared  by  carpenter,  and  all 
to  be  so  put  that  they  can  be  readily  got  at,  at  any  time 
for  examination.  No  pipes  to  run  on  outside  walls  unless 
absolutely  necessary.  All  lead  pipes  to  be  secured  with 
hard  metal  tacks  and  screws,  and  all  lead  waste  or  ven- 
tilating connections  to  iron  pipes  to  be  made  through  brass 
ferrules,  which  must  be  soldered  to  the  lead  pipes  and 
caulked  with  oakum  into  iron  hub  and  the  joints  run  with 
molten  lead. 

All  exposed  places  of  water  pipes  or  any  pipes  contain- 
ing water  that  is  liable  to  freeze,  must  be  thoroughly 
packed  with  mineral  wool  properly  boxed  and  cased  in. 

The  plumber  to  do  all  necessary  digging,  obtain  per- 
mits, pay  all  fees  and  reinstate  all  ground  and  pavement. 


MODKKX  CAliPENTliY  AM)   BUILDING.         185 

DRAINS. — Will  be  put  in  by  the  mason  as  shown  on 
plan.  The  plumber  to  connect  iron  pipe  to  same  3  feet 
outside  the  cellar  wall. 

CAST  IKON  SOIL  AND  WASTE. — Connect  with  drum  as 
shown  a  4-inch  cast  iron  pipe,  which  will  extend  3  feet 
above  the  roof,  and  receive  waste  from  all  the  fixtures. 
Place  a  running  trap  in  main  soil  at  inside  of  cellar  wall 
where  it  can  be  conveniently  got  at  to  clean  out,  etc.,  or 
as  shown. 

IF  THERE  is  A  WATER  SUPPLY. — Tap,  and  pay  for  tap- 
ping main  street,  and  connect;  from  this  point  lay  |-inch 
2j-lb.  lead  pipe  to  supply  the  entire  house,  and  place  a 
f-inch  lever-handle  stop-cock  on  front  inside  cellar  wall  to 
shut  off  when  necessary.  Care  must  be  taken  in  grading 
this  and  all  other  pipes,  so  that  when  the  water  is  turned 
off  they  will  be  drained  perfectly  dry. 

IN    CASE    THERE    IS     NO     WATER      SlJPPLY. PUMP. —  Pl'O- 

vide  a  set  J-inch  Douglas  double  acting  lift  and  force 
pump  to  draw  water  from  the  cistern  (or  a  well  if  pre- 
ferred), with  1-inch  pipe.  Carry  a  branch  of  J-inch  lead 
pipe  from  a  point  just  below  the  retaining  valve  of 
pump  to  cold-water  cock  over  kitchen  sink,  connect  to 
pump  and  continue  up  to  and  over  top  tank  in  the  attic  a 
f-inch  lead  pipe.  Connect  a  J-inch  tell-tale  pipe  4  inches 
below  top  of  tank,  and  carry  down  to  sink  in  the  kitchen. 
TANK. — Properly  line  the  tank  as  furnished  by  the  car- 
penter, in  size  3  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  2  feet  deep  on 
inside,  with  4  Ib.  sheet  lead,  or  to  be  lined  with  14  oz. 
tinned  copper.  Only  tinned  copper  nails  to  be  used. 
Connect  tank  with  1  J-inch  lead  pipe  to  soil  pipe,  placing 
a  Ij-inch  open-way  valve  close  to  tank  for  emptying 


186         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING. 

same  when  necessary.  Run  a  f-inch  lead  pipe  from 
tank  to  boiler  in  kitchen  and  for  the  necessary  supplies ; 
place  a  stop  cock  on  this  pipe  under  tank  to  shut  off  water 
from  building  when  needed;  leave  out  a  branch  in  cellar 
for  connection  to  heater;  also  place  one  draw  cock  in 
cellar  as  directed.  Where  tank  is  supplied  by  city  water, 
to  have  a  ball  cock  to  prevent  overflow  and  keep  water  in 
tank  at  one  level. 

OVERFLOW. — Connect  a  IJ-inch  lead  pipe  2  inches  from 
top  of  tank  and  run  to  outside  of  building,  connecting  to 
leader  or  run  into  some  gutter  or  roof  below  where  tank  is 
placed  ;  place  a  brass  flap-valve  on  outlet  end  of  pipe  to 
keep  out  air  or  cold. 

RANGE. — To  be  furnished  by  owner,  with  water  back 
furnished  by  plumber,  and  to  be  set  by  plumber  complete 
ready  for  use. 

BOILER. — Furnish  and  set  a  40-gallon  copper  boiler  of 
good  weight,  set  on  a  single  legged  cast-iron  standard, 
supplied  with  water  through  f-inch  lead  pipe,  and  con- 
nected with  water  back  of  range  through  J-inch  brass  pipe 
and  brass  couplings,  to  have  J-inch  sediment  pipe  and 
cock,  this  pipe  connected  into  nearest  waste  trap,  so  as  to 
empty  and  cleanse  boiler;  also  place  a  f-inch  stop-cock  on 
supply  pipe. 

CIRCULATION  PIPE. — There  must  be  J-inch  lead  pipe 
connected  to  hot-water  pipe  at  highest  points  and  to  run 
down  below  boiler,  and  there  connected  to  sediment  pipe 
inside  sediment  cock  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  up  a  con- 
tinued circulation  of  hot  water. 

If  supply  to  boiler  is  from  a  tank,*  run  a  -£-inch  lead 

*  It  i«  always  better  to  obtain  pressure  from  tank  rather  than  from  street 
main,  as  it  insures  a  uniforn  pressure,  and  removes  a  source  of  possible  danger. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING.         187 

pipe  from  the  top  of  the  g-inch  hot-water  supply  at  high- 
est point  of  same  and  up  to  and  over  top  of  tank,  leaving 
the  end  open  for  steam  escape. 

SINKS. — Wrought  steel  sinks  to  be  in  size  as  per  plans ; 
the  kitchen  sink  to  have  H-inch  3£-lb.  lead  waste  con- 
nected to  a  5-inch  lead  pot-trap  with  4-inch  brass  cover 
to  screw  on  so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned  out. 

All  sinks  to  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water  through 
J-iuch  lead  pipe,  and  f-flange  and  thimble  bib!)  cocks  of 
brass;  one  bibb  to  have  hose  screw  for  filter;  lead  waste 
to  be  connected  with  2-inch  iron  waste  pipe  in  the  cellar. 

WASHTRAYS. — Furnish  and  set  2  soapstone  washtrays 
22  x  22  x  12  inches  of  usual  shape  with  8-inch  backs  and 
soap  dishes,  |-inch  brass  compression  cocks,  1  J-inch  brass 
plugs  and  couplings,  heavy  brass  safety  chains  and  chain 
holders,  5-iuch  round  lead  trap  and  4  inch  trap  screw, 
one  cock  to  have  screw  for  coupling  hose.  Lids  to  be  of 
cleated  matched  pine  and  hung  with  suitable  brass  hinges. 

PANTRY  SINK. — As  shown  by  plan  ;  supply  with  hot  and 
cola  water  through  J-inch  lead  pipe  and  J-inch  upright 
pantry  cocks,  to  have  IJ-inch  lead  waste  with  4-inch  pot 
trap  properly  connected  to  nearest  iron  waste  pipe.  To 
have  stand-pipe  overflows. 

WATER  CLOSETS. — In  bath  room  and  cellar  to  be  pro- 
vided and  fitted  up  as  shown  on  plan,  to  have  heavy  lead 
traps.  Cistern  closets  to  have  14-oz.  copper-lined  wooden 
cisterns,  supplied  through  J-inch  lead  pipe,  to  have  g-inch 
cistern  valve  and  rubber  ball  cock  ;  other  closets  to  have 
water  supplied  through  f-inch  lead  pipe,  and  each  closet 
to  have  a  shut-off  cock  placed  in  supply  to  control  water 
to  same. 


188         MODERN  C AH  PEN  THY  AND   BUILDING. 

SEAT  VENTILATION. — Each  water  closet  to  have  a  2-inch 
zinc  pipe  connected  to  same  for  seat  ventilation,  and  rim 
to  and  connected  to  the  chimney  flue  at  the  most  conven- 
ient point,  this  pipe  to  have  all  joints  tightly  soldered  and 
to  be  carefully  cemented  into  flue. 

WASH  BASINS. — To  be  16  inches  diameter  or  oval  as 
shown,  each  set  in  a  best-Italian-marble  countersunk  slab 
with  molded  edges,  back  and  sides  10  inches  high  and 
J  inches  thick,  to  have  J-inch  nickel-plated  bibbs,  plug, 
chain  and  chain  stay,  to  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold 
water  through  ^-inch  lead  pipe,  and  to  waste  through 
4-inch  pot  trap  under  each,  and  properly  connected  to 
nearest  iron  waste  or  soil  pipe. 

BATH  TUB. — As  shown  on  plans,  furnish  and  fit  up 
a  5J-foot,  14-oz.  tinned-copper-lined  bath  tub,  supply 
same  with  hot  and  cold  water  through  a  jj-inch  lead  pipe, 
and  to  have  a  double  hot  and  cold  water  compression  bath 
bibb.  Supply  rubber  tube  and  sprinkler  to  same,  tub  to  be 
emptied  through  2-inch  lead  waste  into  water  closet  trap, 
to  have  plated  plug  and  chain  and  overflow  connection. 

Overflow  pipes  from  basins  and  baths  to  be  branched 
into  dips  of  traps  to  each  where  no  special  waste  is  used 
or  specified. 

VENTILATION  PIPES. — All  main  soil  and  waste  pipes  to 
extend  above  re  ^s  as  before  described,  to  have  funnel 
and  large  flashing  to  make  tight  and  to  terminate  witli 
a  ventilating  cap.  All  traps  are  to  be  back  vented.  Vent 
pipes  to  be  connected  with  the  soil  pipe  4  feet  above 
highest  fixture. 

SILL  COCK. — Place  nickel-plated  sill  cock  where  shown, 
with  shut-off  inside  the  cellar. 


MODERN  CARPENTltY  AND   BUILDING.         181) 

All  work  is  to  be  thoroughly  connected  and  trapped  and 
so  arranged  with  all  necessary  faucets  and  stopcocks  that 
the  water  may  be  turned  off  entirely  and  all  pipes  com- 
pletely drained. 

All  soldered  joints  to  be  wiped  joints  except  at  coup- 
lings of  basin  cock,  which  may  be  cupped. 

Chain  for  wash  trays  to  be  No.  2,  for  baths,  No.  1,  for 
basins,  No.  0,  plated  safety  chain. 

WEIGHTS  OF  LEAD  PIPE. — Will  be  per  lineal  foot  for 
supply  pipes  f-inch,  2J  Ibs.,  j-inch,  3J  Ibs. ;  and  for  waste 
pipes  Ij-inch,  2J  Ibs.,  IJ-inch,  3J  Ibs.,  and  2-inch,  4  Ibs. 

GAS  PIPING. — Use  best  wrought-iron  gas  piping,  of  the 
various  sizes  required.  The  mains  to  run  as  direct  as  pos- 
sible, and  so  graded  that  any  water  gathering  in  pipes, 
can  be  run  out  at  a  convenient  point  near  the  meter.  No 
pipe  to  be  less  than  f-inch  for  fixture  connections,  and 
larger  where  required. 

Secure  all  piping  substantially  in  place  with  iron  hold- 
fasts, and  secure  the  drop  and  other  outlets  with  galvan- 
ized-iron  straps  and  screws,  the  pipe  to  be  run  to  supply 
burners  where  indicated  by  red  checks  thus  x  for  side 
lights,  and  for  drop  lights  thus  (x)  on  plans,  and  should 
the  check  be  omitted  in  any  room  or  hall,  it  must  be  sup- 
plied as  directed.  The  side  wall  brack0*  connections  to 
be  arranged  so  as  to  project  from  finishecrwall  the  proper 
distance  for  same,  and  pipe  ends  for  drop  lights  to  hang 
perfectly  straight  and  plumb. 

The  gas  pipes  to  be  put  in  as  required  by  rules  and 
regulations  of  local  Gas  Light  Co.  Put  the  joints  together 
in  red  lead,  all  pipes  to  be  capped,  proven  tight,  and  caps 
left  on.  Locate  meter  as  indicated  on  plans,  provide  all 


190         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

necessary  shut-off  and  alcohol  cocks,  and  make  a  perfect 
job. 

Pay  the  Gas  Company  for  permission  to  connect,  ex- 
cavate and  put  in  service  pipe  from  street  main  to  inner 
face  of  the  cellar  wall,  and  comply  with  all  their  usual 
regulations. 

FURNACE. — Furnish  and  set  complete  a  double-dome, 
wrought-iron  warm-air  furnace  with  24-inch  fire  pot  as  in- 
dicated on  plan,  to  be  properly  enclosed  in  galvanized  iron 
and  to  be  connected  with  cold-air  duct;  to  have  the  re- 
quired manhole  door,  and  evaporating  pan  to  hold  5  gal- 
lons of  water  supplied  with  f -inch  pipe  and  ball  cock ;  to 
have  all  required  mason  work  in  setting  and  for  ash  pit, 
etc.,  all  necessary  fire  tools,  and  smoke  flue  connection, 
ready  to  start  fire. 

Hot  air  pipes  to  be  connected  to  top  of  heater  as  shown, 
and  extend  up  to  registers  with  pipes  of  proper  size  and 
made  of  XX  bright  tin,  joints  soldered  and  all  properly 
connected,  and  wood-work  to  be  protected  with  tin  linings, 
and  where  plastering  will  be  over  face  of  heater  pipes,  to 
be  covered  with  met*l  lath.  The  registers  to  be  set  in 
soap-stone  borders,  and  to  be  in  sizes  as  marked  on  plans. 

BELLS. — Supply  suitable  bells  for  front  and  back  doors 
as  owner  may  select. 

PAINTING. — The  outside  of  the  house  and  privy  is  to 
have  two  good  coats  of  pure  white  lead  and  linseed  oil, 
tinted  as  owner  may  direct.  All  knots  and  sappy  places 
to  receive  a  good  coat  of  heavy  shellac  varnish  before 
painting.  Piazza  floors  and  steps  to  be  oiled.  Hard- 
wood front  door  to  be  filled,  and  finished  with  three  coats 
of  best  elastic  spar  varnish.  Hard-wood  floors  and  stairs 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING.         191 

and  all  interior  finish  that  is  not  to  be  painted,  to  be  filled 
and  finished  with  two  coats  of  interior  spar  varnish. 
Kitchen  to  be  grained  imitation  of  oak  and  to  have  one 
coat  of  spar  varnish.  All  of  the  painter's  work  to  be  done 
in  a  first-class  manner.,  as  above  described. 

FINALY. — Have  the  house  swept  clean  from  attic  lo 
cellar,  and  have  all  rubbish  removed  from  the  house  and 
grounds. 

NOTE  : — The  following  items  might  be  included  with 
advantage  in  many  specifications :  Fireplaces,  Mantels, 
Electric  Bells,  Electric  Lights,  Speaking  Tubes,  Paper 
Hangings,  Picture  Mouldings,  Hardware  for  doors  and 
windows,  etc.,  Cornices,  Centre  pieces,  Fresco  work. 


BUILDING  CONTRACT. 


Contract,  made  this  first  day  of  June, 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-six,  by  and  be- 
tween JOHN  SMITH,  of  Pleasantville,  Mass.,  and  THOMAS 
SAWYER,  of  Pleasantville,  Mass.,  builder. 

The  said  Thomas  Sawyer  does  hereby  agree  with  the 
said  John  Smith  to  make,  erect,  build,  and  finish  in 
a  good,  substantial,  and  workmanlike  manner,  a  wooden 
dwelling  house  upon  land  of  said  Smith,  located  on  First 
street,  in  Smithville,  Mass.,  Union  County,  said  house  to 
be  built  of  good  and  substantial  materials  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  drafts,  plans,  explanations  or  specifications, 
furnished  or  to  be  furnished  to  said  Thomas  Sawyer  by 
John  Smith  ;  and  to  be  finished  complete  on  or  before  the 
first  day  of  November  next. 

And  the  said  John  Smith  does  hereby  agree  to  pay  for 
the  same  to  the  said  Thomas  Sawyer  the  sum  of  twenty- 
five  hundred  dollars  as  follows  :  When  the  cellar  is  in  and 
first  floor  laid,  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  When  the 
frame  is  up  and  boarded,  and  roof  is  shingled,  five  hundred 
dollars;  when  the  plastering  is  completed,  four  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars ;  when  outside  carpenter  work  is  com- 
pleted and  painted  one  coat,  three  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars ;  when  inside  carpenter  work  is  completed,  two  hun- 

192 


XjeSE      ;IB*4^ 

^  OF   THE  r    ^ 

UNIVERSITY 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AXD   HUILD1XK.         193 

(\\-Q(\  and  fifty  dollars;  when  everything  is  finished,  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  ;  and  31  days  after  last  work  is 
done,  four  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  provided  there  are  no 
mechanics'  or  other  liens  on  the  work,  unless  security 
against  the  same  shall  be  furnished.  In  event  of  failure 
to  complete  the  work  on  time,  a  forfeit  of  fifteen  dollars 
per  week  for  such  delay  shall  be  allowed.  No  alterations 
shall  be  made  excepting  upon  written  request  of  said 
Smith,  and  such  charge  or  allowance  shall  be  made  as  is 
just  and  reasonable.* 

And  for  the  performance  of  all  and  every  the  articles 
and  agreements  above  mentioned  the  said  John  Smith  and 
Thomas  Sawyer  do  hereby  bind  themselves,  their  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  each  to  the  other,  in  the 
penal  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

5n  foritnegs  infjereof  we  the  said  John  Smith  and  Thomas 
Sawyer  hereto  and  to  another  instrument  of  like  tenor,  set 
our  hands  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Executed  nnd  delivered  in  pretem-e  of 

SAMUEL  JOHNSON.  )  JOHN  SMITH.  [SEAL.] 

ABEL  ADAMS.          I"  THOMAS  SAWYER.   [SEAL.] 


*  It  is  best  to  have  the  plans  and  specifications  in  duplicate,  all  being  signed 
by  both  parties,  both  retaining  a  copy  of  each,  as  well  as  of  a  copy  of  the  con- 
tract. Any  additions  or  alterations  to  be  requested  in  writing,  and  a  price  given 
also  in  writing,  and  a  letter-press  copy  of  all  such  requests  and  replies  should  be 
taken.  While  these  things  may  seem  needless  and  somewhat  troublesome,  y«t 
a  little  care  used  here  may  save  a  great  deal  of  worriment  and  expense  of  litiga- 
tion later  on,  and  avoids  any  chance  for  the  owner  to  feel  that  he  is  being  rotated 
on  extras. 


HOW  TO  PLAN  HOUSES. 


Whenever  you  go  into  any  house,  make  a  note  of  the 
sizes  and  arrangements  of  the  rooms,  and  the  sizes  of  the 
closets,  pantry,  etc.,  consider  in  what  way  they  could  be 
improved, —  whether  they  are  too  large  or  too  small,  then 
when  you  wish  to  draw  plans  for  a  house,  you  have  some 
statistics  to  guide  you.  Do  not  make  the  house  just  so 
large,  and  then  see  how  it  can  be  divided  up,  and  if  any 
space  is  left  over,  try  to  make  a  closet  of  it,  but  decide 
about  what  size  you  want  each  room,  and  the  closets  and 
the  pantry,  then  you  know  about  how  large  to  make  the 
house ;  of  course  the  sizes  of  the  rooms  may  have  to  be 
modified  somewhat  to  suit  circumstances. 

fin  building  houses  to  be  let,  do  not  make  the  rooms  too 
large,  as  the  tenant  will  then  be  obliged  to  buy  new  car- 
pets, which  will  be  a  drawback  in  letting  the  house}  For 
ordinary  houses,  12x13  feet  makes  very  fair-sized  rooms, 
and  in  case  there  is  a  bay  window  let  that  add  so  much 
more  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Another  thing  that  is  gen- 
erally overlooked  is  this  :  arrange  the  sizes  of  the  principal 
rooms  so  as  to  use  even  breadths  of  tapestry  carpets,  which 
are  only  j-yard  in  width.  If  rooms  are  two  or  three  inches 
wider  it  necessitates  purchasing  entire  extra  lengths  of 
carpet,  and  entails  a  considerable  additional  outlay,  which 
might  have  been  avoided  by  a  little  forethought  on  the 
part  of  the  person  who  planned  the  house. 

194 


MODERN  CA1IPEXTHY  AXD   7>T//,7>/VW/.         195 

In  planning  houses,  always  keep  in  mind  the  furniture 
that  will  go  in  the  various  rooms,  and  try  so  far  as  possi- 
ble to  provide  suitable  locations  for  the  principal  pieces. 
To  illustrate  :  In  the  parlor  provide  wall  space  for  a  piano 
and  one  or  two  large  easy  chairs,  or  a  sofa;  in  the  sitting 
room,  arrange  so  as  to  have  wall  room  for  a  couch  or 
lounge,  and  perhaps  a  desk  or  book-case;  in  the  dining 
room  provide  a  location  for  the  sideboard,  and  iu  each 
chamber  there  will  want  to  be  wall  room  for  the  head  of 
the  bed,  also  for  dressing  case,  commode,  etc.  Then  have 
the  doors  swing  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  any  of  the 
furniture,  or  with  other  doors.  Clothes  closets  should  be 
made  sufficiently  deep  to  hold  a  trunk.  If  possible,  pro- 
vide room  for  a  refrigerator  on  the  first  floor  (outside  of 
the  kitchen),  thus  saving  a  woman  the  many  steps  re- 
quired to  carry  food  down  cellar.  Where  ice  is  not 
obtainable,  try  to  provide  a  closet  with  dumb  waiter,  so 
that  as  the  food  is  cleared  off  from  the  table,  it  may  be 
placed  on  the  shelves  of  the  dumb  waiter  and  then  lowered 
into  a  closet  in  the  cool  cellar,  which  closet  may  be  pro- 
vided with  a  wire-mesh  door  to  keep  out  insects ;  then 
when  the  food  is  wanted,  the  car  of  the  dumb-waiter  can 
be  drawn  up  again,  thus  saving  many  steps. 

Of  course,  you  will  always  arrange  so  as  to  have  a  rough 
attic  to  stow  away  trunks,  chests  of  bedding,  etc.,  and 
for  drying  the  washing  in  stormy  weather.  Do  not  have 
a  basement  kitchen  if  you  can  possibly  avoid  it,  as  they 
are  regular  tuoman-killers. 

A  study  of  the  following  house  plans,  together  with  our 
criticisms  thereon,  will  be  of  great  help  to  those  who  wish 
to  plan  houses  that  will  prove  convenient. 


REMARKS  ON  OUR  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


As  there  is  scarcely  anybody  who  would  build  a  house 
for  himself  exactly  like  any  published  plan  or  elevation, 
we  have  merely  introduced  a  few  desirable  plans,  mostly 
as  suggestions,  from  which  to  select  as  regards  sizes  and 
arrangement  of  rooms,  and  cost  to  build,  and  have  also 
shown  a  number  of  illustrations  of  beautiful  modern  resi- 
dences, each  having  some  features  of  especial  interest. 
We  will  briefly  state  that  the  reason  we  give  no  figures 
of  probable  cost  to  build  is  because  such  figures  are  almost 
invariably  worthless  and  misleading. 

A  few  alterations  of  any  given  plan,  and  the  question 
of  thoroughness  of  construction,  braces,  etc.,  hardwood 
finish,  rubbed  varnish,  open  plumbing,  plate  glass  and 
other  things,  can  easily  make  a  difference  of  from  $500- 
to  $1500  or  more  in  the  cost  of  a  house;  and  as  the 
cost  of  labor  and  materials  vary  in  different  localities,  it 
can  easily  be  understood  that  the  only  way  to  get  a  correct 
idea  of  cost  is  to  have  two  or  three  responsible  builders 
make  an  estimate  for  their  particular  locality,  after  the 
specifications  have  been  carefully  drawn  up. 

Our  frontispiece  shows  a  house  with  front  door  in  the 
center  (not  clearly  discernible  in  the  deep  shadow,  the 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         197 

photograph  having  been  taken  with  the  sun  almost  direct- 
ly overhead  in  order  to  bring  out  the  carved  work).  If 
this  house  was  of  brick,  the  carved  portion  could  be  of 
brick  laid  in  red  mortar,  and  afterwards  sculptured,  or  it 
might  be  of  moulded  and  baked  terra  cotta,  or  carved 
sandstone.  For  a  wooden  house  it  should  be  either  3-coat 
exterior  plaster,  composed  largely  of  Portland  cement,  the 
final  coat  being  quite  heavy,  and  modeled  by  hand  before 
it  became  too  much  set,  or  it  might  be  moulded  blocks  or 
sheets  of  staff  (used  on  the  Chicago  World's  Fair  Build- 
ings) ,  or  it  might  be  embossed  sheets  of  Lincrusta  Walton, 
or  embossed  copper,  nailed  on. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  different  treatment  that  can 
be  given  the  exterior  of  houses  of  practically  the  same  floor 
plan.  In  the  present  instance  we  have  a  large  round  corner 
bay,  running  up  two  stories  and  surmounted  by  a  spire, 
while  the  house  shown  on  page  25  has  the  round  corner  bay 
only  one  story  in  height.  The  house  shown  on  page  15 
has  a  similar  bay  on  a  rear  corner,  the  second  story  being 
an  open  balcony,  covered  with  a  dome  roof.  The  house 
on  page  135  has  a  small  round  corner  with  still  another 
style  of  finish. 

Then  note  the  different  treatment  of  the  front-door  stoop 
or  porch  on  the  houses  shown  on  pages  15,  25,  45,  55, 
65,  75,  95  and  125,  also  the  ornamentations  on  the  friezes 
of  the  houses  shown  on  pages  55,  65  and  125;  also  notice 
the  spacious  piazzas  on  the  houses  shown  on  pages  35,  125 
and  145,  affording  ample  room  for  large  rocking  chairs, 
tables,  hammocks,  etc.,  or  for  entertaining  quite  a  large 
company  of  guests.  These  broad  piazzas  are  usually  sit- 
uated on  southern  or  western  sides  of  houses  to  shield  the 


198         MODEL*  N  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

rooms  from  the  intense  glare  of  the  mid-summer  sun,  but 
it  is  advisable  to  also  have  unshaded  windows  on  one  side 
of  each  room  where  such  windows  are  not  directly  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  thus  preventing  any  tendency  to 
dampness  or  gloom  in  dull  weather.  In  some  cases,  as 
shown  on  page  65,  the  piazza  is  covered  only  by  an  awning, 
which  can  be  raised  on  dark  days  or  altogether  removed 
in  winter. 

Any  floor  plan  that  is  not  fully  figured  can  be  scaled  in 
a  similar  manner  as  previously  explained  for  scaling  photo- 
graphs. For  example  :  if  a  room  is  figured  14  feet  wide, 
with  the  compasses  get  yjth  of  its  width  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  which  equals  one  foot,  and  from  this  a  scale 
can  be  marked  off  on  a  strip  of  paper  or  business  card,  by 
means  of  which  any  other  dimensions  that  are  not  figured 
can  be  found.  Head  room  for  stairs  can  be  ascertained 
either  by  drawing  a  cross-section  of  the  house,  or  by  fig- 
uring as  explained  under  "stair  building."  Sufficient 
head  room  should  be  allowed  for  a  tall  expressman  to  carry 
a  trunk  up  stairs  on  his  shoulder  or  back,  without  danger 
of  hitting  the  plastering  overhead. 

As  has  been  elsewhere  stated,  any  view  or  plan  can  be 
shown  reversed  by  merely  holding  it  before  a  mirror  or  by 
holding  it  up  to  the  light  and  looking  through  from  the 
back  side. 


CRITICISMS  OF  FLOOR  PLANS. 


PLAN  Ai  —  This  is  about  as  convenient  a  plan  for  a 
small  family  as  can  be  found.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
ell  part  is  only  one  story  in  height.  There  are  but  three 
alterations  that  we  would  suggest;  1st,  omit  the  chimney 
and  grates  or  fire-places  in  the  parlor  and  dining  room, 
and  the  grate  in  the  library,  and  with  the  money  thus 
saved,  put  in  a  20-inch  fire  pot  double-dome  wrought-iron 
furnace,  (a  hot-water  heater  can  be  used  if  preferred,  but 
one  of  ample  size  would  cost  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the 
furnace) ;  2d,  have  a  closed  porch  or  back  entry  at  the 
back  door,  which  will  prevent  whoever  does  the  kitchen 
work  having  cold  feet  in  the  winter,  and  have  the  entry  or 
porch  made  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  a  refrigera- 
tor or  ice  chest,  thus  saving  the  many  steps  that  would 
have  to  be  taken  were  it  kept  down  cellar  ;  3d,  change  the 
location  of  wash  bowl  in  the  bath  room,  putting  it  where 
the  water  closet  now  is,  and  putting  the  water  closet  where 
the  wash  bowl  is  ;  this  will  make  it  much  handier  to  get  at 
the  window,  which  need  only  be  a  short  one,  located  3  J  or 
4  feet  up  from  the  floor  if  desired.  A  china  closet  is  lack- 
ing in  the  dining  room. 

PLAN  B«  —  This  plan  is  similar  to  Plan  A,  but  with 
larger  rooms  and  a  two-story  ell,  which  affords  room  for 

199 


200        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING. 

back  stairs ;  (this  requires  a  long  passage-way  in  the  second 
story  to  connect  to  front  stairs,  making  a  lot  of  additional 
floor  to  carpet  and  keep  cleaned  up).  The  arrangement 
of  the  fixtures  in  the  bath  room  is  very  poor  indeed,  as  one 
must  reach  over  or  climb  into  the  bath  tub,  in  order  to  open 
or  close  the  window;  this  can  easily  be  improved.  A  back 
entry  with  room  for  refrigerator  is  also  needed  —  and 
while  you  are  about  it,  better  make  a  large  closet  in  it,  to 
stow  away  old  hats  and  coats,  boots  and  shoes,  clothes 
basket,  ironing  board,  etc.,  and  also  better  move  the  sink 
to  the  further  corner  of  the  kitchen,  so  the  wife  or  hired 
girl  will  not  have  to  wash  dishes  close  up  to  a  hot  stove  in 
summer  time,  and  so  she  can  have  some  daylight  on  the 
subject  also.  The  added  comfort  will  well  repay  the  few 
extra  steps  she  will  have  to  take. 

PLAN  C« — This  plan  has  many  good  points  to  com- 
mend it.  The  parlor  is  about  the  right  size  for  a  house  built 
to  be  let,  (otherwise  it  might  be  considered  a  little  nar- 
row), but  we  should  prefer  a  sliding  (or  swinging)  door 
to  shut  off  draughts  of  cold  air  from  the  hall  in  the  winter 
time.  As  will  be  seen,  instead  of  simply  having  a  square 
hall  (as  shown  on  Plan  F),  the  side  has  been  extended  out 
one  story  in  height  and  a  small  "  den"  or  reception  room 
has  been  formed.  The  library  is  of  ample  size,  and  the 
wash  bowl  off  the  dining  room  is  very  convenient  (or  a  dish 
washer  might  be  set  if  perf erred).  The  pantry  is  poor; 
we  would  suggest  extending  the  wall  out  to  the  corner  of 
the  library  bay  window  (one  story  only  in  height) .  The 
water  closet  on  the  first  floor  will  save  many  steps,  but 
will  need  either  a  small  furnace  register,  or  a  small  radia- 
tor, or  it  will  be  likely  to  freeze  up  in  the  winter  time  and 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING.         201 

become  a  veritable  nuisance.  We  would  advise  putting 
a  sash  door  between  the  kitchen  and  the  back  entry-way, 
and  also  have  glass  in  the  outside  door.  The  principal 
defect  in  this  plan  is  lack  of  accommodations  for  a  refrig- 
erator and  back  entry  closet,  which  could  be  overcome  by 
an  addition  on  the  back  of  the  kitchen,  similar  to  that 
shown  on  the  plan  of  Sylvester's  house,  the  entrance  to  the 
kitchen  being  where  the  dresser  is  now  located.  Then  the 
present  back  door  should  be  stopped  up  or  a  window  locat- 
ed there  instead.  The  set  wash  bowl  in  the  second  story 
will  be  very  convenient  in  case  the  bath  room  is  occupied, 
but  the  two  doors  entering  the  bath  room  may  lead  to  em- 
barrassment sometime,  in  case  a  person  taking  a  bath 
should  happen  to  fasten  only  one  door,  as  that  is  all  that 
is  usually  necessary.  Unless  the  rear  bedroom  door  has 
ground  glass  panels,  the  rear  end  of  the  passage  way  is 
liable  to  be  rather  dark  when  all  the  doors  are  closed.  As 
will  be  seen,  the  piazzas  are  quite  ample,  but  the  door  in 
the  second  story  that  opens  out  on  the  balcony  will  be 
a  cold  thing  in  the  winter,  and  may  leak  cousiderab'y  at 
best.  We  would  suggest  a  window  reaching  to  within 
a  foot  of  the  floor,  instead. 

PLAN  Di  — Suggestions  :  Stop  up  the  door  next  to  the 
sink  and  put  in  a  window  instead,  and  provide  room  for 
a  refrigerator  at  the  other  back  door.  Flare  the  sides  of 
dining  room  bay  so  as  to  be  able  to  put  in  full-sized  win- 
dows at  each  side,  thus  narrowing  up  the  straight  part,  in 
which  a  window  may  be  put  if  desired,  or  the  window  can 
be  omitted  and  the  sideboard  can  be  set  there.  Our  pref- 
erence would  be  to  omit  the  fireplace  in  the  parlor,  and 
put  the  piano  or  organ  there,  and  make  the  corner  bay 


202         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

window  much  larger.  One  out  about  this  plan  is  the  fact 
that  to  answer  the  front  door  bell,  one  has  to  travel 
through  two  or  three  rooms  and  the  length  of  the  hall  also. 
No  set  tubs  are  shown  in  the  kitchen,  but  could  be  added 
if  desired,  but  most  likely  there  is  a  laundry  finished  off  in 
the  basement  or  cellar.  The  dish  washer  in  the  butler's 
pantry  is  very  convenient.  Our  principal  objections  to 
this  plan  are;  1st,  no  hat-and-coat  closet  in  front  hall; 
and  2d,  no  lavatory  (water  closet  and  wash  bowl,  see 
Sylvester's  plan)  on  first  floor  ;  and  for  a  house  of  this  size 
this  appears  to  us  to  be  a  serious  omission.  Note  the  re- 
mark previously  made  in  regard  to  doors  for  2d  story 
balconies. 

PLAN  E> — This  plan  has  a  fine  back  entry  and  room 
for  refrigerator,  but  no  back  entry  closet.  The  other 
kitchen  door  and  the  library  door  opening  on  the  piazza  will 
be  cold  things  in  winter  time.  The  balance  of  the  first  floor 
plan  is  very  fine  indeed,  unless  one  preferred  to  locate  the 
piano  in  the  parlor  where  the  fireplace  now  is.  The  only 
lack  there  appears  to  be  a  lavatory.  In  the  second  floor 
plan  we  should  omit  the  fireplace  in  the  parlor  chamber 
and  put  the  head  of  the  bed  there,  as  it  would  show  bet- 
ter in  that  position  and  give  easier  access  to  closet  over 
library.  A  serious  fault  is  having  the  linen  closet  open  off 
from  the  bath  room,  being  thus  subject  to  steam  and  odors. 
The  bath  room  should  have  been  sent  cleai  back  to  the 
rear  wall,  its  door  carried  close  up  to  the  rear  bedroom 
partition;  the  entrance  to  the  rear  closet  in  library  cham- 
ber should  have  been  stopped  up,  and  a  door  cut  through 
from  the  hall,  then  we  would  have  a  fine  large  linen  closet 
opening  only  from  the  hall. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  A3D 

Of  course  the  front  piazza  and  steps  can  be  arranged  to 
suit  any  particular  location. 

PLAN  F. — This  is  one  of  the  best,  to  our  way  of 
thinking.  The  spacious  front  hall  and  front  piazza  are 
tine  features,  and  the  passage  way  leading  directly  from 
the  kitchen  to  the  front  hall  avoids  the  necessity  for  one 
to  have  to  pass  through  another  room  to  answer  the  front 
door  bell.  This  is  a  great  advantange  where  one  enter- 
tains much.  Personally,  we  would  prefer  a  slightly  pro- 
truding bay  or  curving  front  on  the  parlor  with  chimney 
omitted,  and  we  would  put  the  pantry  window  on  the  rear, 
and  have  a  mixing  counter  and  flour-barrel  cupboard  there 
(see  Sylvester's  plan),  and  locate  the  sink  on  the  rear  of 
the  kitchen  next  to  the  pantry,  the  chimney  being  put  in 
the  rear  left-hand  corner. 

The  lack  of  a  back  entry  with  room  for  a  refrigerator, 
and  back-entry  closet,  also  lack  of  a  lavatory  on  first  floor, 
are  the  serious  omissions  of  this  plan.  As  usual,  the  bath 
room  window  had  to  be  put  where  one  must  climb  over  the 
bath  tub  to  get  at  it.  It  would  have  been  better  to  have 
placed  same  at  back  between  the  wash  bowl  and  bath  tub, 
where  there  was  a  clear  space. 

PLAN  G«  —  But  little  needs  to  be  said  about  this  plan. 
If  the  lobby  on  back  were  extended  back  a  couple  of  feet, 
leaving  the  closet  door  where  it  is,  there  would  be  a  fine 
chance  to  set  a  refrigerator.  The  sink  appears  to  be  in 
a  ivarm  place,  but  as  provision  is  made  for  washing  the 
dishes  in  the  butler's  pantry,  perhaps  this  does  not  matter 
much,  but  it  seems  to  us  to  be  quite  a  distance  from  the 
kitchen  range  to  the  dining-room  table.  One  would  think, 
that  with  all  the  wasted  room  that  there  is  in  the  butler's 


204          MODERN  CARPENTER  AND  BUILDING. 

pantry,  some  proper  method  might  have  been  adopted  to 
secure  a  lavatory  on  the  first  floor.  In  the  second  floor 
plan  we  still  find  bath-room  windows  located  in  the  most 
inaccessible  places,  but  what  puzzles  us  is  the  necessity 
of  having  a  closet  within  a  closet. 

PLAN  H. — The  striking  features  of  this  plan  are  the 
great  round  bay  on  the  library,  the  fine  piazzas,  and  the 
dining-room  bay.  The  pantry  is  rather  small,  and  the 
back  entry  lacks  refrigerator  room  and  a  closet.  No  set 
tubs  are  shown  in  the  kitchen,  as  doubtless  a  laundry  is 
finished  off  in  the  cellar.  The  utility  of  a  closet  in  the 
bath  room  is  not  apparent,  unless  it  be  for  dirty  clothes  ; 
we  would  prefer  to  have  the  room  for  a  chair.  Here  again 
we  find  no  lavatory  on  the  first  floor. 

PLAN  I. — This  is  a  double  house  and  by  extending  it 
ten  feet  deeper,  and  slightly  modifying  some  of  the  details, 
it  could  be  made  into  a  four-flat  house.  As  will  be  seen, 
the  lack  of  good  closets  is  a  serious  drawback. 

PLAN  J«  —  This  a  very  fine  plan  but  needs  a  back-en- 
try closet,  etc.  It  is  but  a  few  steps  from  the  kitchen  to 
the  dining  room,  thus  making  easy  the  serving  of  food. 
The  fine  piazzas  and  coach  porch  are  especial  features. 
The  bath-room  fixtures  might  be  differently  arranged  per- 
haps, so  as  to  give  better  access  to  the  window. 

FINALLY.  —  It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  freely  criticised 
these  plans,  pointing  out  the  good  features  as  well  as  the 
defects  and  omissions,  and  we  believe  these  criticisms  will 
be  helpful  to  those  who  have  to  draw  house  plans,  as  well 
as  to  prospective  builders  and  house  owners.  We  would 
simply  say,  however,  that  it  is  much  easier  to  criticise, 
than  to  design  a  plan  free  from  defects. 


REMARKS   ON   PLANS 

FOR 

W.  A.  SYLVESTER'S  HOUSE. 


We  give  herewith  a  set  of  twelve  complete  framing 
plans  for  a  high-grade  modern  residence,  (two  photo- 
graphic views  of  same  being  shown  elsewhere) ,  from  which 
a  correct  idea  of  the  most  approved  methods  of  modern  con- 
struction may  be  obtained. 

The  complete  and  thorough  method  of  bracing  in  the 
exterior  walls  will  be  observed,  long  braces  of  3  x  4-inch 
or  4  x  4-inch  material  being  used.  The  interior  walls  or 
partitions  are  similarly  braced,  there  being  something 
like  forty  braces  in  the  entire  frame,  all  fastened  in  the 
most  thorough  manner  with  5  or  6-inch  wire  spikes.  This 
method  is  known  as  semi-balloon  framing,  and  allows 
practically  the  full  strength  of  all  the  timbers,  instead  of 
cutting  them  full  of  mortices,  as  was  formerly  the  custom. 
The  roof  of  this  house  is  covered  with  selected  extra-qual- 
ity cedar  shingles,  which  after  being  spread  out  to  dry 
several  days  were  dipped  in  creosote  stain,  and  were  then 
fastened  on  with  large  galvanized  wire  nails. 

The  valleys  are  shingled  open,  3J-inches  at  top,  and 
4J-inches  at  bottom,  so  that  ice  and  snow  will  not  get 

205 


206         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

lodged  therein.  The  flashings  of  the  valleys,  etc.,  are  of 
16-oz.  copper,  14  inches  wide.  The  walls  of  the  house 
are  covered  with  very  heavy  waterproof  paper  (not  tarred 
paper)  before  being  clapboarded,  and  a  layer  of  this 
paper  was  put  between  all  of  the  floors,  thus  making  a 
very  warm  house.  Zinc  flashings  are  put  on  over  all  win- 
dow frames  and  also  over  the  water  table.  The  chimney 
is  built  entirely  of  selected  hard-burned  bricks  and  is 
topped  out  with  Portland  cement  mortar,  the  top  being 
protected  by  a  slate  stone  cap. 

The  large  and  numerous  closets  are  a  special  feature  of 
this  house.  Opening  from  the  parlor  chamber  there  are 
two  closets  each  4x5  feet,  one  for  the  owner  and  one  for 
his  wife.  If,  however,  it  should  be  thought  more  desir- 
able to  occupy  the  southwest  chamber  in  the  winter  season 
(that  being  more  sunny),  there  are  two  closets  opening 
from  this  room  also,  —  one  of  them  opening  from  both 
rooms,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  plan.  There  is  ample  chance 
in  the  attic  to  finish  off  several  large  rooms  if  desired,  and 
one  or  two  rooms  could  easily  be  finished  off  in  the 
cellar.  For  a  house  for  a  small  family  where  the  lady 
prefers  to  do  her  own  work,  it  is  doubtful  if  a  more  con- 
venient plan  can  be  found.  Of  course  the  rooms  can  be 
made  smaller  if  desired. 

Several  minor  changes  can  easily  be  made  in  the  plan 
of  this  house.  For  example  :  If  a  separate  sitting  room 
(or  library)  and  dining  room  is  required,  a  dining  room 
can  be  added  on  the  westerly  part  of  the  south  side,  en- 
trance being  had  through  the  pantry  and  also  through  the 
china  closet,  the  present  window  in  the  latter  being  put  on 
the  west  side  instead  of  on  the  south  side  —  the  cupboards 
on  the  west  side  being  omitted. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         207 

If  back  stairs  are  desired,  they  can  be  had  by  two 
methods :  first,  by  making  the  addition  for  the  back  entry 
and  its  large  closet  two  stories  high  instead  of  one,  and 
having  winding  stairs  where  the  closet  now  is,  these  stairs 
leading  to  the  kitchen  chamber;  secondly,  by  omitting  the 
lavatory,  and  having  a  half  flight  of  back  stairs  that  shall 
lead  up  to  the  landing  of  the  front  stairs.  In  order  to 
get  necessary  head  room  for  these,  put  the  bath  tub  and 
the  water  closet  on  the  south  side  of  the  bath  room, 
and  the  wash  bowl  on  the  north  side,  then  head  room 
can  be  obtained  where  the  water  closet  is  now  situated. 
One  oversight  was  made  by  the  architect,  and  that  was 
in  having  the  cold-air  box  for  the  furnace  enter  from 
the  east  side,  which  caused  a  down  draft  in  the  hot-air 
registers  when  the  wind  blew  strongly  from  the  west  or 
northwest  as  it  usually  does.  This  defect  has  since  been 
remedied  by  having  the  inlet  for  the  cold-air  box  come  on 
the  north  pide  under  the  front  piazza.  The  cold-air  inlet 
should  always  be  on  the  westor  north  or  northwest  side  of 
the  house,  then  the  wind  entering  the  cold-air  inlet  forces 
the  heated  air  that  is  in  the  furnace  out  through  the  regis- 
ters, thus  giving  a  good  circulation  of  warm  air  and  keeping 
the  house  comfortable.  A  sliding  damper  should  be  built 
in  the  cold-air  box  near  the  cellar  wall,  so  that  the  open- 
ing may  be  partly  closed,  if  desired,  when  the  wind  blows 
too  hard ;  of  course  a  screen  of  strong  galvanized-wire  mesh 
should  be  put  over  the  outside  of  the  cold- air  inlet  so 
as  to  exclude  animals  and  vermin.  The  area  of  a  cross 
eection  of  the  cold-air  box  should  be  a  little  in  excess  of 
the  combined  areas  of  all  the  hot-air  pipes;  if  it  is  smaller, 
then  there  is  a  liabilitv  of  a  down  draft  in  some  weak- 


208        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING. 

draught  register  trying  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  With 
a  large  double-dome  wrought-iron  furnace  (giving  large 
radiating  surface)  fed  with  stove-size  coal,  there  is  no 
trouble  in  keeping  warm,  especially  if  storm  windows  are 
placed  on  some  of  the  most  exposed  windows. 

Perhaps  it  is  needless  to  remark  that  houses  built  on 
speculation,  —  or  to  sell,  are  not  built  and  braced  in  as 
thorough  a  manner  as  this  one  is,  as  the  average  purchaser 
is  not  willing  to  pay  the  price  that  the  thorough  work  costs ; 
and  since  most  builders  do  not  carry  on  business  merely 
for  the  fun  and  excitement  to  be  derived  from  it,  but  are 
trying  to  get  a  living,  they  are  frequently  obliged  to  scamp 
the  work,  and  run  up  houses  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
can  sell  them  at  a  fair  profit — they  are  obliged  to  build 
a  house  to  fit  the  probable  price  the  customer  will  be  will- 
ing to  pay,  or  as  some  call  it,  "  cut  the  garment  according 
to  the  cloth."  The  purchaser  doubtless  congratulates 
himself  on  getting  "  a  bargain,"  and  will  say  that  "  it  is 
cheaper  to  buy  a  ready-built  house  than  to  build,"  but 
usually  he  gets  just  about  what  he  pays  for. 


FLOOR   AND   FRAMING 
PLANS 


FOR 


W.  A.  SYLVESTER'S  HOUSE, 

READING,  MASS. 

FOR    VIEWS   OF    THIS   HOUSE 
SEE  PAGES  105  AND  115. 


ALSO, 

FLOOR   PLANS 


OF 


MODERN   RESIDENCES. 

FOR    CRITICISMS   ON    SAME 
SEE  PAGES  199-204. 


210        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


W.A.5YLVZ5TER 

READING       MASS 


Memo.- All  figures   on 
this  t>tan  grp  from  The 
frame  fine. 

Mo-i. 


3IODEKN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.          211 


W.A.5YLVE5TER 

REACHHG      /7A55 

no-z 


flemo-Allmev 
tf>Af/f  ffvm  frame  line 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 


212        MODERN  CAEPENTEY  AND  BUILDING. 


WKSYLVE5TER 


MODEltX  CAKPENTltY  AND   BUILDING.         213 


W.A5YLVE5TEP 


Cormcp    line 


214         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


VA  SYLVtSTtR  E.5Q 
READING  ,  HA55 

FIRST  FL°-°R  -  FRAMING  PLAN 
W5 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         215 


ft 

/_ 


W  A  5VLVE3TER 

READING-MASS 


PLAM 


216         MODEtiN  CAlirENTllY  AND   BUILDING. 


MfT£     Attic  ruffrrs        | 
n  ro/er  f  to  from  - 


READIHO-.MA55 

N°   7 


Aff/c     F/oor   Frame    Plan 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.        217 


/?EAP/NQ    MA  5  5 


FPAME  PL  Afi 


OF    THK 

UNIVERSITY 


218         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


5y/ves7~er   £s<?      N* 9 


f 


X 


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4 


A 


i 


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Opta-nj 


Framing    o\   Fronh  Elevation 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


219 


Framing    oj 


£le\/dtron 


220         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


W. 'A.  Jy/i/e$fer  fry 


Trannino"   of    Rear  Elevation 
^>      j      x 


Plan   A. 


For  views  of  somewhat  similar  houses,  see  pages  85-105. 
222 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.        223 

Plan  A. 


JTeeoN/ 7/bof? 


Plan  B. 


For  view  of  similar  house  (reversed)  see  p.  85;  also  pp.  45  nnd  105. 


224 


MODERN  CARPENTliY  AND  BUILD  I  \G.         225 

Plan  B. 


Plan  C. 


For  views  of  similar  houses,  see  pages  2,  45,  55,  85. 

226 


SECOND.JLoOR. 


227 


Plan  D. 


For  view  of  this  house  see  page  135. 

228 


Plan  D. 


/       m 


Plan  E. 


ftfsrf/aa? 


For  view  of  similar  house  (reversed)  see  page  135. 

230 


Plan  E. 


231 


Plan  p. 


For  view  of  this  house  see  page  145 ;  also  see  page  55. 

232 


Plan 


234        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING 


Plan  G. 


For  views  of  similar  houses  see  pages  35,  65,  75,  and  125. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         235 


Plan  G. 


236        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   1W1LD1NG. 


Plan 


For  view  of  similar  house. (reversed)  see  page  25;  also  frontispiece. 


MODKJtX  CAIlPEXrill'  AND   BUILDlXd.         237 


Plan 


SECONfD.flOOR 


238         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 


Plan  I. 


For  view  of  this  house  see  page  125 ;  also  see  page  65. 


MODERN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.         239 


Plate  I. 


240        MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING. 


Plan  J. 


1  For  view  of  similar  house  see  page  95  ;  also  see  page  15. 


MODE  JIN   CAUPEXTEY  AND   BUILDING. 


Plan  J. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  ARCHITECTURE 
AND  CARPENTRY, 


Acanthus.  —  An  ornament  resembling  the  foliage  or  leaves 
of  the  acanthus  plant,  used  in  the  capitals  of  the  Corinthian 
and  Composite  orders  of  architecture. 

Abutment.  —  That  on  which  a  thing  rests,  or  by  which  it  is 
supported,  as  the  abutment  of  an  arch. 

Arcade.  —  A  series  of  arches  supported  by  columns  or  piers, 
either  open  or  backed  by  masonry.  A  long,  arched  building. 

Arris. — The  edge  formed  by  two  surfaces  meeting  each 
other,  applied  particularly  to  the  raised  edges  which  separate 
the  flutings  in  a  Doric  column. 

Arris  Fillet.  —  A  triangular  piece  of  wood  used  to  raise  the 
covering  of  a  roof  against  a  chimney  or  wall  so  as  to  throw  off 
the  rain. 

Abacus.  —  The  upper  plate  upon  the  capital  of  a  column 
supporting  the  architrave. 

Architrave.  —  The  lower  division  of  an  entablature,  or  that 
part  which  rests  im mediately  on  the  column.  The  ornamental 
moulding  around  the  exterior  of  an  arch.  This  term  is  also 
applied  to  door  and  window-casings. 

Annulet.  —  A  small,  flat  fillet  encircling  a  column.  It  is 
several  times  repeated  under  the  Doric  capital. 

Arch.  —  A  construction  of  stone  or  brick  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  curve,  supporting  each  other  by  their  mutual  pressure. 

242 


MOD  Eh 'X    CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING.         243 

Astragal.  —  A  littJ^  round  moulding,  which  surrounds  the  top 
or  bottom  of  a  column. 

Back-flaps.  — Rather  long,  square  hinges,  considerably  shorter 
than  strap-hinges,  but  applied  in  the  same  manner. 

Bui  uster.  —  A  small  column  used  to  support  a  rail. 

Balustrade.  —  A  ro\v  of  balusters  topped  by  a  rail,  serving  as 
a  fence  for  balconies,  stairs,  etc. 

Laicony.  —  A  platform  projecting  from  the  outside  walls  of  a 
house,  generally  enclosed  by  a  balustrade. 

Baidacltin. —  A  structure  in  the  form  of  a  canopy,  supported 
by  columns  or  projecting  from  the  wall,  placed  over  doors, 
thrones,  etc. 

Band.  —  A  low,  fiat  moulding,  broad,  but  not  deep. 

Bartizan.  —  The  small,  overhanging  turret  which  projects 
from  the  angles  of  towers  and  other  parts  of  a  building. 

Base.  —  The  lower  projecting  part  of  a  room,  consisting  of 
the  plinth  and  its  mouldings.  The  part  of  a  column  between 
the  top  of  the  pedestal  and  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 

Button. —  A  round  moulding  in  the  base  of  a  column  ;  also 
called  'J'orus. 

But  dement.  —  A  notched  parapet;  originally  used  only  on 
fortifications,  but  since  used  on  buildings. 

Batten.  —  A  narrow  strip  of  board  used  to  cover  seams  or 
joints  in  boarding.  Any  narrow  strip  of  board. 

Ban-window. —  A  window  projecting  outward  from  the  wall, 
either  in  a  rectangular,  polygonal,  or  semi-circular  form.  Some- 
times called  Bow-window. 

Bead.  —  A  round  moulding.  When  it  comes  flush  with  the 
surrounding  surface,  it  is  called  a  Quirk-bead .  when  it  is  raised, 
it  is  called  a  Cock-bead.  There  is  also  the  Plaster  iny-bead, 
v  hich  is  nailed  on  to  the  corner  of  the  stud  or  furring  which 
forms  the  external  angle  of  a  partition.  It  is  sometimes  called 
a  fdde  Joint-bead. 

foam.  —  A  horizontal  timber  used  to  resist  a  force  or  weight, 


244         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  HUILDING. 

as  a  Tie-beam,  where  it  is  used  to  tie  the  work  together ;  as  a 
Collar-beam,  when  it  is  used  to  connect  and  brace  two  opposite 
rafters. 

Blocking*  — Small  pieces  of  wood  fitted  and  glued  in  the 
internal  angle  formed  by  the  side  of  one  board  being  fastened 
to  the  edge  of  another,  and  used  to  give  strength  to  the  joint. 

To  Break  Joints.  —  To  arrange  the  work  so  that  no  joint  of 
any  course  shall  come  opposite  a  joint  in  either  the  course  next 
above  or  below  it,  as  ssen  in  shingling,  clapboarding,  slating, 
etc. 

Butt-joint.  —  A  joint  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  square 
ends  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  or  the  joint  formed  by  the  square 
end  of  one  piece  meeting  the  side  or  edge  of  another  piece. 

Bracket.  —  A  piece  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal  projecting  from 
a  wall  to  support  shelves,  statuary,  etc. 

Buttress.  —  A  projecting  support  to  the  exterior  of  a  wall ; 
most  commonly  applied  to  churches  in  the  Gothic  style,  but  also 
to  other  buildings,  and  sometimes  to  mere  walls. 

Flying  Buttress.  —  A  contrivance  for  strengthening  a  part  of 
a  building  which  rises  considerably  above  the  rest,  consisting 
of  a  curved  brace  or  half-arch  between  it  and  the  opposite  face 
of  some  lower  part,  so  named  from  its  passing  through  the  air. 

Carriage  of  a  stair,  also  called  Stringer.  —  The  timber  which 
supports  the  steps  and  risers. 

Canopy.  —  An  ornamental  projection  in  the  Gothic  style 
over  doors  and  windows. 

Cantilecer.  —  A  projecting  block  or  bracket  for  supporting  a 
balcony,  the  upper  member  of  a  cornice,  the  eaves  of  a  house, 
etc. 

Capital.  —  The  header  or  uppermost  part  of  a  column,  pilas- 
ter, etc.  There  are  six  varieties,  each  adapted  to  its  respective 
order;  viz.,  the  Gothic,  which  is  ornamented  with  leaves  and 
foliations;  the  Composite,  also  called  the  Roman  or  Italic,  which 
is  a  combination  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian;  the  Tuscan, 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND  BUILDING.         245 

which  is  plain  and  unornarnented,  much  resembling  the  Doric , 
the  Corinthian,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  profusion  of  orna- 
ments ;  the  Doric,  which  much  resembles  the  Tuscan,  and  is 
between  that  and  the  Ionic  in  ornamentation ;  and  the  Ionic, 
whose  distinguishing  feature  is  the  volute  of  its  capital,  and  is 
less  ornamented  than  the  Corinthian. 

Can/.  —  A  piece  of  board  used  in  veneering  for  the  purpose 
of  clamping  the  veneer  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  glued. 

Casement.  —  A  glazed  sash  or  frame  which  opens  on  hinges. 

Castellated.  —  Adorned  with  turrets  and  battlements  like  a 
castle. 

Catherine-wheel  Window.  —  An  ornamental  circular  window 
with  radiating  divisions  or  spokes. 

Casting  or  Warping. — The  bending  of  a  board  width  ways, 
caused  either  by  one  side  shrinking  or  swelling  more  than  the 
other,  or  by  the  peculiar  grain  of  the  wood. 

To  Chamfer.  —  To  bevel  the  corner  of  a  square-edged  piece 
of  wood. 

Clamp.  —  A  tool  having  a  screw,  used  to  force  and  hold  work 
together. 

Crown-post.  —  The  middle  post  of  a  trussed  roof ;  also  called 
the  King-post. 

Cavelto.  —  A  hollow  moulding,  whose  profile  is  the  quarter 
of  a  circle ;  used  chiefly  in  cornices. 

Chancel.  —  That  part  of  a  church  between  the  altar  and  the 
rail  that  encloses  it. 

Chaptrel.  —  The  capital  of  a  pier  or  pilaster  which  receives 
an  arch  ;  also  called  an  Impost. 

Ceiling.  —  The  upper  interior  surface  opposite  the  floor. 

Choir.  —  That  part  of  a  church  appropriated  to  the  use  of 
the  officiating  clergyman  ;  the  chancel. 

Chord  of  an  arch;  the  span. 

Column.  — A  cylindrical  support  for  roofs,  ceilings,  etc.,  corn, 
posed  of  base,  shaft,  and  capital;  a  pillar. 


246         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Cyma.  —  A  moulding  of  a  cornice  which  is  composed  of  two 
members,  —  a  hollow  and  a  round ;  an  ogee  moulding.  It  is 
called  Cyma  Recta  when  the  upper  member  is  hollow  and  the 
lower  member  is  round.  It  is  called  Cyma  Reversa  when  the 
upper  member  is  round  and  the  lower  member  is  hollow. 

Cinque-foil.  — An  ornamental  foliation,  having  five  points  or 
cu»ps,  used  in  windows,  panels,  etc. 

Clustered  Column. — A  column  which  is  composed,  or  appears 
to  be  composed,  of  several  columns  collected  together. 

Composite  Order.  —  An  order  of  architecture  made  up  of  the 
Ionic  order  grafted  on  the  Corinthian ;  also  called  the  Roman 
o.r  Italic  order. 

Console.  —  A  bracket  or  shoulder-piece,  or  a  projecting  orna- 
ment on  the  keystone  of  an  arch,  and  often  used  to  support 
litlle  cornices,  busts,  and  vases. 

Coping.  —  The  highest  or  covering  course  of  masonry  in  a 
wall,  sometimes  bevelled  on  the  top  to  carry  off  the  water ;  also 
called  Capping. 

Concrete.  —  A  mass  of  stone  drippings,  pebbles,  etc.,  cemented 
by  mortar,  and  used  for  foundations  where  the  soil  is  light  or 
wut ;  also  used  to  lay  cellar-bottoms.  In  concrete  sidewalks 
the  pebbles  are  generally  cemented  by  gas-tar  instead  of  mortar 
or  cement. 

Cornice.  —  Any  moulded  projection  which  crowns  or  finishes 
the  part  to  which  it  is  affixed,  as  the  cornice  of  an  order,  of  a 
pediment,  of  a  door,  window,  or  house. 

Corinthian  Order.  —  The  third  order  of  architecture,  charac- 
terized by  a  profusion  of  ornamentation. 

Corbel.  —  A  bracket  used  to  support  arches,  statuary,  etc. 

Cove.  —  An  arch  overhead  where  ceilings  connect  with  the 
walls. 

Crocket.  —  An  ornament  formed  in  imitation  of  curved  and 
b*nt  foliage,  and  placed  upon  the  angles  of  spires,  canopies,  etc, 

Curb-roof.  —  a  roof  having  a  double  slope ;  a  gambrel  roof. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND    BUILDING.         247 

Cupola.  — A  dome-like  vault  on  the  top  of  an  edifice,  usually 
on  a  tower  or  steeple,  as  of  a  public  building.  The  word  as 
commonly  used  means  a  small  tower  or  turret  built  on  the  top 
of  a  building. 

Curb-plate.  —  The  plate  in  a  curb-roof  that  receives  the  feet 
of  the  upper  rafters. 

Dado. — The  die  or  square  part  in  the  middle  of  the  pedestal 
of  a  column,  between  the  base  and  the  cornice ;  also  that  part 
of  an  apartment  between  the  plinth  and  the  impost  moulding. 

Dentil.  —  An  ornamental  square  block  or  projection  in  cor- 
nices, bearing  some  resemblance  to  teeth,  used  particularly  in 
the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  orders. 

Doric  Order.  —  Belonging  to  the  second  order  of  columns, 
between  the  Tuscan  and  Ionic.  The  Doric  order  is  distinguished 
for  strength  and  simplicity. 

Dormer  Window.  —  A  window  placed  on  the  inclined  plane 
of  the  roof  of  a  house,  the  frame  being  placed  vertically  on  the 
rafters. 

Echinus.  —  A  moulding  of  the  same  form  as  the  ovolo  or 
quarter-round,  but  properly  so  called  only  when  ornamented 
or  carved  with  eggs  and  anchors. 

Engaged  Columns. — Columns  sunk  partly  into  the  wall  to 
which  they  are  attached,  and  standing  out  at  least  one-half  of 
their  thickness. 

Entablature.  —  That  part  of  an  order  which  is  over  the  col- 
umns, including  the  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 

Facade.  —  A  front  view  or  elevation  of  an  edifice. 

Fascia.  —  A  flat  member  of  an  order  or  building,  like  a  flat 
band  or  broad  fillet. 

Festoon.  —  An  ornament  of  carved  work  in  the  form  of  a 
wreath  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  leaves,  represented  as  depending 
or  hanging  in  an  arch. 

Fillet.  —  A  little  square  member  or  ornament  used  in  various 
places,  but  generally  as  a  corona  over  a  greater  moulding,  some' 


248        MODERN  CAEPENTBY  AND   BUILDING. 

times  as  a  small  square  under  other  mouldings ;  also  the  square 
part  of  the  cyma  recta  and  ogee  mouldings. 

Finials.  —  A  knot  or  bunch  of  foliage  that  forms  the  upper 
extremities  of  pinnacles  in  Gothic  architecture. 

Flute.  —  A  channel  in  a  column  or  pilaster. 

Foil.  —  A  rounded  or  leaf-like  ornament  in  windows,  niches, 
etc.,  called  trefoil,  quatre-foil,  quinque-foil,  or  cinque-foil,  etc., 
according  to  the  number  of  arcs  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Foliation.  —  The  act  of  enriching  with  feather  ornaments 
resembling  leaves,  or  the  ornaments  themselves. 

Frieze.  —  That  part  of  the  entablature  of  a  column  which  is 
between  the  architrave  and  cornice.  It  is  a  flat  member  or 
face,  often  enriched  with  figures  of  animals  or  other  ornaments 
of  sculpture,  whence  its  name. 

Fresco.  —  A  method  of  painting  on  plastered  walls  and 
ceilings. 

Fret.  —  An  ornament  consisting  of  small  fillets  intersecting 
each  other  at  right  angles. 

Furrinys.  —  Strips  of  board,  1  by  3  inches,  which  are  nailed 
on  the  under  side  of  floor-timbers,  to  form  a  level  surface  for 
laths, — strapping.  The  term  furring  is  sometimes  applied  to 
studding. 

Gable.  —  The  vertical  triangular  end  of  a  house  or  other 
building,  from  the  eaves  to  the  top. 

Gable-roof.  —  The  sloping  roof  which  forms  a  gable. 

Gable-window.  —  A  window  in  a  gable,  or  pointed  at  the  top 
like  a  gable. 

Girder  —  The  principal  piece  of  timber  in  a  floor,  girding  or 
binding  the  others  together. 

Gothic.  —  A  style  of  architecture  with  high  and  sharply 
pointed  arches,  clustered  columns,  etc. 

Groined  Arch.  — An  arch  having  an  angular  curve,  made  by 
the  intersection  of  two  half-cylinders  or  arches,  as  a  groined 
ceiling. 


MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDlXtl.         249 

Gutter.  —  A  channel  at  the  eaves  of  a  roof  to  carry  off  the 
rain. 

Hanging  Buttress.  —  A  buttress  supported  on  a  corbel,  and 
not  resting  on  the  solid  foundation. 

Helix.  —  The  little  volute  under  the  flowers  of  the  Corinthian 
capital. 

Hip-knob.  —  An  ornament  placed  upon  the  roof  of  a  building, 
either  upon  the  hips  or  at  the  point  of  the  gable. 

Hip-moulding.  —  A  moulding  on  the  rafter  or  beam  which 
forms  the  hip  of  a  building. 

Hip-roof.  —  A  roof  having  sloping  ends  and  sloping  sides. 

Hood-moulding.  —  A  projecting  moulding  over  the  head  of 
an  arch. 

Interlacing  Arches.  —  Arches  usually  circular;  so  constructed 
that  their  curves  intersect  or  interlace. 

Ionic  Order.  —  An  order  whose  distinguishing  feature  is  the 
volute  of  its  capital.  The  column  is  more  slender  than  the 
Doric  and  Tuscan,  but  less  slender  and  less  ornamented  than 
the  Corinthian  and  Composite. 

Jamb.  —  The  side-piece  or  post  of  a  door  or  window,  or  any 
other  aperture  in  a  building. 

Kerf.  —  To  saw  a  notch  in  wood,  to  make  it  flexible  or  easily 
bent. 

King-post.  —  A  post  rising  from  the  tie-beam  to  the  roof. 

Lattice.  —  Any  work  of  wood  or  iron  made  by  crossing  laths, 
rods,  or  bars,  and  forming  a  network. 

Lancet  Window.  —  A  high  and  narrow  window,  pointed  like 
a  lancet. 

Lintel.  —  A  longitudinal  piece  of  wood  or  stone  placed  over 
a  door,  window,  or  other  opening ;  a  head-piece. 

Louver  Window.  —  An  opening  in  a  bell-tower  church-steeple, 
crossed  by  a  series  of  bars  or  sloping  boards,  to  exclude  the 
rain,  but  allow  the  passage  of  sound  from  the  bells. 

Mantel.  —  The  work  over  a  fireplace  in  front  of  a  chimney, 


250         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

especially  a  narrow  shelf  above  the  fireplace;  called  also 
Mantel-piece. 

Minaret.  — A  slender,  lofty  turret  on  the  mosques  of  Moham- 
medan countries,  rising  by  different  stages  or  stories,  and  sur- 
rounded by  one  or  more  projecting  balconies,  from  which  the 
people  are  summoned  to  prayer. 

Mitre.  —  This  term  is  applied  to  pieces  meeting  at  an  angle, 
and  matching  together  on  a  line  bisecting  the  angle  :  generally, 
however,  an  angle  of  45°  is  called  a  mitre,  sometimes  called  a 
square  mitre ;  that  is  to  say,  a  mitre  for  a  square  or  rectangular 
figure. 

Modittion.  —  The  enriched  block  or  horizontal  bracket  gen- 
erally found  under  the  cornice  of  the  Corinthian  entablature, 
and  sometimes  less  ornamented  in  the  Ionic,  Composite,  and 
other  orders. 

Mullion. — A  slender  bar  or  pier  which  forms  the  divisions 
between  the  lights  of  windows,  screens,  etc.  One  of  the  divis- 
ions in  panellings  resembling  windows. 

Mutule.  —  A  projecting  block  worked  under  the  corona  of 
the  Doric  cornice,  in  the  same  situation  as  the  modillion  of  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders. 

Nave.  —  The  middle  or  body  of  a  church,  extending  from 
the  choir  or  chancel  to  the  principal  entrance ;  also  the  part 
between  the  wings  or  aisles. 

Newel.  —  The  upright  post  about  which  the  steps  of  a  circu- 
lar staircase  wind;  also  the  principal  post  at  the  angles  and 
foot  of  a  staircase. 

Niche.  —  A  cavity  or  recess,  generally  within  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  for  a  statue,  bust,  or  other  ornament. 

Nosing.  —  That  part  of  the  step-board  of  a  stair  that  pro- 
jects over  the  riser;  also  any  like  projection. 

Ogee.  —  A  moulding  consisting  of  two  members,  one  con- 
cave, the  other  convex,  or  a  round  and  a  hollow. 

Oriel  Window  —  A  large  bay-window  in  a  hall  or  chapel. 


MODKHN   CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING.          251 

Ovolo.  —  A  round  moulding ;  the  quarter-round. 

Pavilion.  —  A  temporary  movable  building  or  tent.  The 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  a  summer-house  in  a  garden. 

Pedestal.  —  The  base  or  foot  of  a  column.  It  consists  of 
three  parts,  —  base,  dado  or  die,  and  cornice. 

Pediment.  —  The  triangular,  ornamental  facing  of  a  portico, 
or  a  similar  decoration  over  doors,  windows,  gates,  etc.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  arched  and  circular  ornaments  of  a  like 
kind. 

Pendant.  —  A  hanging  ornament,  used  in  roofs,  ceilings,  etc., 
much  used  in  Gothic  architecture. 

Pilaster.  —  A  square  column,  usually  set  within  a  wall,  and 
projecting  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  part  of  its  diameter. 

Pinnacle.  —  A  slender  turret,  or  part  of  a  building  elevated 
above  the  main  building. 

Pitch  of  a  Roof.  —  The  inclination  or  slope  of  the  sides ; 
sometimes  expressed  in  parts  of  the  span,  as  £"*  or  ^th  pitch,  that 
is,  the  rise  is  that  part  of  the  span ;  sometimes  by  the  length  of 
the  rafter  in  parts  of  the  span,  as  f"1*  or  |thi  pitch,  that  is,  the 
length  of  rafter  is  that  part  of  the  span.  Also  the  Gothic  pitch, 
where  the  length  of  rafters  is  the  same  as  the  span.  Eliza- 
bethan pitch,  in  which  the  length  of  rafters  is  greater  than  the 
span.  Grecian  pitch,  in  which  the  rise  is  £th  to  1th  of  the  span  ; 
and  the  Roman  pitch,  in  which  the  rise  is  £th  to  fth"  of  the  span. 

Plate.  —  A  piece  of  timber  which  supports  the  ends  of  the 
rafters. 

Plinth.  —  A  square,  projecting,  vertically  faced  member,  form- 
ing the  lowest  division  of  the  base  of  a  column.  The  plain, 
projecting  face  at  the  bottom  of  a  wall,  immediately  above  the 
ground. 

Planceer  or  Planclier.  —  The  under  side  of  a  cornice ;  a  soffit. 

Porch.  —  A  kind  of  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of  temples, 
churches,  halls,  and  other  buildings;  hence,  an  ornamental 
entrance-way. 


252         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AND   BUILDING. 

Portico.  —  A  covered  space,  enclosed  by  columns,  at  the  en- 
trance of  a  building. 

.  Purlin.  — A  piece  of  timber  extending  from  end  to  end  of  a 
building  or  roof,  across  and  under  the  rafters,  to  support  them 
in  the  middle. 

Putlog.  —  A  piece  of  timber  on  which  the  planks  of  a  stage 
are  laid,  one  end  resting  on  the  ledger  of  the  stage,  and  the 
other  in  a  hole  in  the  wall,  left  temporarily  for  the  purpose. 

Queen-post.  —  One  of  the  suspended  posts  in  a  truss-roof, 
framed  below  into  the  tie-beam,  and  above  into  the  principal 
rafter. 

Quirk.  —  A  small,  acute  channel,  by  which  the  rounded  part 
of  a  Grecian  ovolo  or  ogee  moulding  is  separated  from  the 
fillet. 

K'lil.  —  The  horizontal  part  in  any  piece  of  framing  or 
panelling. 

Rake.  —  Pitch  or  inclination  of  a  roof. 

Recess.  —  Part  of  a  room  formed  by  the  receding  of  the  wall, 
as  an  alcove,  a  niche,  etc. 

Return.  —  The  continuation  of  a  moulding  or  projection  in 
a  different  direction. 

Seat  of  a  Hip,  or  Plan  of  a  Hip.  —  A  level  line  over  which  a 
hip-rafter  stands. 

Scotia-  —  A  concave  moulding  used  in  the  base  of  a  column, 
between  the  fillets  of  the  tori,  and  in  other  situations.  Its  out- 
line is  a  segment  of  a  circle,  often  greater  than  a  semicircle. 
The  moulding  which  is  put  under  the  nosing  of  steps. 

Scroll.  —  A  convolved  or  spiral  ornament.  The  volute  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals. 

Soffit.  —  Under  side  of  stairways,  archways,  entablatures, 
cornices,  or  ceilings. 

Spire.  —  A  body  that  shoots  up  in  a  conical  form  ,•  a  steeple. 

Stall.  —  A  small  apartment,  where  merchandise  is  exposed 
for  sale,  as  a  butcher's  stall. 


MOD  KEN  CAEPENT11Y  AND   BUILDING.         253 

Stile.  —  The  upright  piece  in  framing  or  panelling. 

Stucco.  —  Plaster  of  any  kind  used  as  a  coating  for  walls, 
especially  a  fine  plaster  composed  of  lime  or  gypsum,  with  sand 
and  pounded  marble ;  used  for  internal  decoration  and  fine 
work. 

S urbane.  —  A  cornice  or  series  of  mouldings  on  the  top  of 
the  base  of  a  pedestal,  podium,  etc.  The  surbase  of  a  room  is 
sometimes  called  a  chair-rail. 

Tie-beam.  —  A  beam  acting  as  a  tie  at  the  bottom  of  a  pair 
of  the  principal  rafters,  and  prevents  them  from  thrusting  out 
the  walls. 

Torus.  — A  large  moulding  used  in  the  base  of  a  column. 
Its  profile  is  semicircular. 

Tower.  —  A  lofty  building,  much  higher  than  it  is  broad, 
either  standing  alone  or  forming  a  part  of  another  edifice,  —  of 
a  church,  castle,  etc. 

Threshold.  —  The  door-sill ;  the  plank,  stone,  or  piece  of 
timber  or  board,  that  lies  at  the  bottom  or  under  a  door  of  a 
house  or  other  building. 

Transom.  —  A  horizontal  cross-bar  over  a  door  or  window, 
sometimes  used  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  a  sash  over  a 
door. 

Tracer)/.  —  An  ornamental  divergency  of  the  mullions  in  the 
head  of  a  window  into  arches,  curves,  and  flowing  lines,  enriched 
with  foliations ;  the  sub-divisions  of  groined  vaults,  «tc. 

Trellis.  —  A  structure  or  frame  of  cross-barred  work,  used  for 
various  purposes,  as  for  screens  for  supporting  plants. 

Transept.  — A  part  of  a  church  at  right  angles  to  the  body 
of  the  church.  In  a  cruciform  church  it  is  one  of  the  arms  of 
the  cross. 

Turret.  —  A  little  tower  or  spire  attached  to  a  building,  and 
rising  above  it. 

Tuscan  Order.  — The  most  ancient  and  simple  of  the  orders 
of  architecture.  The  capital  is  plain,  unornamental,  and  much 
like  that  of  the  Doric  order. 


254         MODERN  CARPENTRY  AXD   BUILDING. 

Veranda.  —  A  kind  of  open  portico,  formed  by  extending  a 
sloping  roof  beyond  the  main  building. 

Vestibule.  —  The  porch  or  entrance  into  a  house;  a  hall  or 
ante-chamber  next  to  the  entrance,  and  from  which  doors  open 
to  the  various  rooms  in  the  house. 

Volute.  —  A  kind  of  spiral  scroll  used  in  -  the  Ionic,  Corin- 
thian, and  Composite  orders  of  architecture. 

Well-hole.  —  The  open  space  in  the  middle  of  a  staircase 
beyond  the  ends  of  the  steps. 


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Work.  Chapter  XIV.— Painting. 


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Mate  7.— Competitive  design  fora  $2,500  house.  Plate  8.— Perspective  elevations. 
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Shop  front  for  small  store,  with  details.  Plate  15.— Store  front,  plan  and  very  full 
details.  Plate  10.— Design  for  a  corner  store,  with  details.  Plate  17.— Brick  store 
f.ront,  witli  details,  Plate  18.— Designs  for  a  restaurant  and  cafe,  plans  and  details. 
PI  a  e  1'J.— Painters' and  Artists' matei  ials  store.  Plate  20.— Detail  of  a  screen  for 
a  bank  desk  and.  detail  of  a  screen  for  a  broker's  office.  Plate  21.— Corner  drug 
store,  exterior  and  interior  details.  Plate  22.— Design  for  store  front  and  business 
block  with  details.  Plate  23  —Improved  method  of  remodeling  an  ordinary  high 
stoop  private  residence  into  three  stories.  Plate  24.— Suggestions  for  storefront 
with  arched  openings. 

PART  3.— Stables. 
Paper  portfolio;  price,  post-paid $1.25 

Plate  25.— Design  for  small  stable.  Plate  20.— Stable  and  barn  for  a  gentleman 
farmer:  smallslable.  Plate  27.— A  stable  to  cost  about  $1.000.  Plate  28 —A  stable  to 
cost  about  $1.200.  Plate  29.— Large  stable  and  barn,  giving  plan  of  yard  and  details. 
Plate  30.— A  stable  for  four  horses,  to  cost,  between  $3.000  and  $4.000.  Plate  31.— 
Stable,  perspective  elevation  and  plans.  Plate  32.— Stable  and  carriage  house ;  cost 
$3.000.  Plate  33.— Stable,  elevation,  plans  and  details.  Plate  34.— Farm  stable. 
Plate  35.— Stable;  cost,  $2,500.  Plate  36.— Stable  for  a  summer  resort;  cost,  $10,000. 

PART  4. — Seaside  and  southern  homes. 
Paper  portfolio  ;  price,  post-paid $  1 .25 

Plate  37.— Design  for  summer  cottage.  Plate  38.— Low-priced  cottage;  cost, 
$1,500  to  $1.000.  Plate  3'J.— A  seaside  cottage,  perspective,  elevation,  plans  and  de- 
tails. Plate  4't. —Low-priced  seashore  cottage,  perspective,  plans  and  interior  de- 
tails. Plate  41.— Seaside  cottage,  verandah  on  two  sides,  perspective,  elevation  and 
plans.  Plate  42.— Seaside  cottage,  elevations,  plans  and  details.  Plate 43.— South- 
ern home  or  seaside  cottage,  perspective  and  elevation,  and  two  plans.  Plate  44.— 
A  Florida  cottage.  Plate  45.— Seaside  cottage,  perspective,  elevation  and  plans. 
Plate  4«.— Sketch  for  seaside  cottage,  with  plans;  cost,  $2,000.  Plate  47.— Seaside 
house,  elevation  and  plans.  Plate  48.— Seaside  hotel. 


Sent  post-paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


ALLEN  SYLVESTER,  BOSTOX,  MASS.,    U.  S.  A. 

PART  5.— Out-buildings. 
Paper  portfolio ;  price,  post-paid $1.25 

Plate  40  —Wind  mill,  wagon  house  and  well  house.  Plate  ao.— Three  designs  for 
fences,  pate  and  well  liouse.  Plate  51.— Gate  lodge,  brick  fence  and  old  Colonial 
high  fence.  Plate  52.— Stable,  detail  of  fence  and  gale,  and  summer  house.  Plaie 
53.— General  utility  building,  including  carriage  liouse,  stable,  shop  and  chicken 
house.  Plate  54.— Two  ways  of  entering  a  terrace,  summer  house,  garden  house  and 
entrance  prate.  Plate  55.— Seaside  pavilion,  bath  house  and  screened  privy.  Plate 
56.— Dancing  pavilion,  poultry  ana  pigeon  liouse.  Plate  57.— Haih  house,  ice  house. 
Plate  5S.— Two  designs  for  privies,  wagon  shed,  and  three  designs  for  gates  and 
fences.  Plate  59.— Out-buildings  for  rear  of  a  100-ft.  lot.  double  privy  and  covered 
gateway.  Plate  60.— Tool  house,  wood  shed  and  privy,  and  three  designs  for  fences. 

VOL.  2. 

PART    6. — $500   to   $2,500  houses,    giving   perspectives,    eleva- 
tions and  plans,  with  specifications,  bills  of  materials,  and 
estimates  of  cost. 
Paper  portfolio,  twelve  plates;    price,  post-paid -$1.25 

Plate  1.— $500  hor.se.  Plate  2.— $700  house.  Plate  3.— $SOO  house.  Plato  4.— $sro 
house.  Plate  5.— $WH»  house.  Plate  6.— fl.ixio  house.  Plate  7.— $1,000  house.  Plate 
8.— $1,000  house.  Plate  9.— $1,200  house.  Plate  10.— $1. .loo  house.  Plate  11.— $2,000 
house.  Plate  12.— $2,500  house. 

PART  7. — Interior  woodwork  of  houses  of  moderate  cost. 
Paper  portfolio,  twelve  plates  ;   price,  post-paid $1.25 

Plate  13.— Two  china  closets.  Plate  14.— Details  of  china  closet.  Plate  15.— An 
angle  fire-place  and  parlor  mantel,  with  details.  Plate  16.— Book-shelve*  with  de- 
tails. Plate  17.— staircase  and  screen,  with  details.  Plate  Is.— Two  bedroom  man- 
tels with  details.  Plate  1!»  —  Entrance  hall  and  staircase.  Plate  20.— Details  of 
entrance  hall  and  staircase.  Plate  21.— Bathroom,  with  details.  Plate  22.— Hall 
fireplace,  with  details.  Plate  23.— Library  book-shelves,  with  details.  Plate  24.— 
Dining-room  mantel,  with  details. 

PART  8.— Store  fitting*. 
Paper  portfolio,  twelve  plates ;    price,  post-paid $1.25 

Plate  25.— Counter  and  showcase,  with  details.  Plate  26.— Detached  case, 
with  details.  Plate  27.— Wall-shelving,  with  details.  Plate  28.— Telephone  case, 
with  details.  Plate  2!).— Counter  for  druggist,  with  details.  Plate  30.— Wall  cases, 
with  details.  Plate  31.— Two  counters,  with  details.  Plate  32.— Two  detached  cases, 
with  details.  Plate  33.— Prescription  counter,  with  details.  Plate  34.— Perfumery 
case,  with  details.  Plate  35.— Wall-shelving,  with  details.  Plate  36.— Cashiers 
desk,  with  details. 

PART  9. — City  houses. 
Paper  portfolio,  twelve  plates ;    pr.ice,  post-paid $1.25 

This  part  is  devoted  to  elevations,  plans  and  sections  of  city  houses.  A  special 
feature  will  be  a  large  and  carefully  selected  series  of  floor  plans. 

Practical  Boat  Building;  and  Sailing. 

By  P.  NEISON,  D.  KKMPR  and  G.  C.  DAVIDS  ;  54  x  8  inches ; 
cloth ;  London $3.0O 

This  book  contains  full  instructions  for  designing  and  building  punts,  skiffs, 
canoes,  sailing  boats  and  yachts. 

Sent  post-paid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


ALLEN  SYLVESTER,   BOSTON,   MASS.,    U.S.A. 

Canoe  and  Boat  Building. 

A  complete  manual  for  amateurs,  containing  plain  and  com- 
prehensive directions  for  the  construction  of  canoes,  rowing 
and  sailing  boats  and  hunting  craft.  By  W.  P.  STEPHENS; 
264  pages;  illustrations,  and  50  plates  in  envelope $2.5O 

Numerous  examples  of  canoes  are  here  given,  with  plain  instruction  for  tlie 
beginner  to  select  the  proper  craft  and  to  plan  dimensions,  details  and  fittings. 
lioat  building  is  fully  treated  on,  a  rowboat  of  the  usual  construct  lull  being  taken 
as  an  example. 

Wood-Turners'  Handy  Book. 

By  S.  N.  HASLUCK.  A  practical  manual  for  workers  at  the 
lathe,  embracing  information  011  the  tools,  appliances  and 
processes  employed  in  wood  turning;  100  illustrations;  144 
pages,  5  x  7£  inches ;  cloth ;  boards 81.00 

This  is  a  compact  and  very  satisfactory  texl  book  of  wood-turning,  treating  on 
wood-turners'  lathes,  hand  loots,  rounding  tools,  titling  up  a  lathe, chucks, copying 
lathes,  &o.,  as  well  as  special  instructions  for  turning  numerous  articles  of  com- 
mon occurrence. 

Manual  of  Wood  Carving. 

By  WM.  BEMROSE,  JR.  ;  49  pages,  7  3  x  9.^  inches  ;  127  colored 
illustrations;  cloth $3.00 

The  purpose  of  the  author  of  this  work  was  to  provide  the  amateur  carver  such 
information  and  assistance  as  would  enable  him  to  produce  various  articles  of  fur- 
niture, tasteful  in  character  and  durable  in  quality.  At  the  outset  he  gives  atten- 
tion to  the  tools  and  appliances  necessary,  and  some  general  instructions  in  their 
use.  Following  this  are  plates  of  designs  suitable  for  execution,  accompanied  by 
brief  descriptive  letterpress. 

Book  of  Alphabets, 

48  pages,  5ix9£  inches:  paper $1.00 

This  book  contains  llo  plain  and  ornamental  alphabets,  adapted  to  the  use  of 
sign  painters,  draftsmen  and  designer^.  It  includes  all  tne  standard  styles  and 
many  new  ones. 

Wood  Carving  for  Amateurs. 

Containing  descriptions  of  all  the  requisite  tools  and  full  in- 
structions  for  their  UM;  in  producing  different  varieties  of 
carving.  Illustrated;  second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 
pamphlet :  80  pages 81 .00 

Thislittle  book  is  intented  prin-arily  to givt-  information  on  the  subject  for  ama- 
teurs, [t  is  of  such  a  character,  however,  as  to  l>e  useful  to  tlir«=e  who  hnve  »  df-sire 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  wood  carving  for  its  advantages  as  an  eninlovuifi".  The 
subject  is  carefully  discussed,  tools  are  Illustrated,  directions  are  pri-M-nted  and  in 
general  the  reader  is  carefully  instructed  in  the  art. 

Scut  postpaid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


ALLEN   SYLVESTER,    HOSTOX,    MASS.,    r.  S.  A. 


Law  Without  Lawyers:    A  Compendium  of 

Business  and  Domestic  Law  for  Popular  Use.  By  HKNRY  B. 
COKEY,  L.L.B.,  member  of  the  New  York  Bar:  41G  pages; 
12mo  ;  cloth &1.5O 

Tliis  book  has  been  prepared  with  especial  reference  to  those  who  have-  not  en- 
joved  a  legal  education.  It  is  a  simple,  clear  and  accurate  presentation  of  the 
general  laws  and  of  the  laws  oT  the  several  States  relating  to  the  rights  of  property, 
contracts,  debts,  partnerships,  bankruptcy,  insurance,  corporations,  marriages, 
divorce,  Ac.,  with  which  are  included  correct  copies  of  all  legal  instruments  :md 
forms,  such  as  notes,  deeds,  mortgages,  leases,  wills,  Ac.,  and  a  dictionary  of  legal 
words  and  phrases.  Technical  law  terms  have  been  omitted,  explained  "or  trans- 
lated into  ordinary  language.  The  arrangement  is'good.  each  paragraph  having  the 
subject  designated  in  heavy  type-  A  complete  index  facilitates  reference  to  any 
subject. 

Everybody's  Paint  Book. 

A  complete  guide  to  the  art  of  outdoor  and  indoor  painting; 
L'8  illustrations ;  183  pages,  5  x  74  inches  ;  cloth S1.6O 

This  book  is  designed  for  the  special  use  of  that  large  class  of  people  who 
in  motives  of  economy  or  convenience  prefer  to  do  their  own  work.    Practical 
structions  are  given  for  plain  painting,  varnishing,  polishing,  staining,  paper 


from  motives  of  economy  or  convenience  prefer  to  do  their  own  work.  Practical 
instructions  are  given  for  plain  painting,  varnishing,  polishing,  staining,  paper 
hanging,  kalsomining,  renovating  furniture.  ,Vc.  Full  descriptions  of  tools  and 


materials  and  explicit  directions  for  mixing  paints  are  Included.    The  subject  of 
home  decoration  is  briefly  considered,  and  there  is  a  chapter  on  spatter  work. 

Paper  Hanger's  Companion. 

By  JAMES  AKKOWSMITH  ;  108  pages,  5  x  7  4  inches $1.5O 

The  author  practically  descrilies  the  necessary  tools  and  appliances  and  the 
various  cements,  pastes  "and  si/ings  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  trade, 
copious  directions  preparatory  to  papering,  and  preventions  against  the  effect  of 
damp  on  walls,  are  given.  There  are  also  observations  for  the  paneling  and  orna- 
menting of  rooms. 

House     Painting,    Carriage    Painting    and 

Graining.     By  JOHN  MASUKY  ;  244  pages,  5  x  "^  inches. 82  OO 

This  is  a  purely  practical  book  on  the  subjects  indicated,  which  may  be  readily 
understood  by  inexperienced  readers.  A  number  of  chapters  are  given  to  the  u>es 
of  colors.mixingof  paints  and  colors,  Interior  and  exterior  painting,  whitewashing, 
the  various  shades  of  graining  and  tools  used,  carriage  paint  ing  and  varnishing. 

ANY  OF  THESE  BOOKS  SENT  FREE  BY  MAIL  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 


Do  you  want  a  nice  Cold  or  Silver  Watch, 

or  a  fine  Clock?  We  can  supply  you  with  the  best  at  less  than 
regular  prices.  Send  ten  cents  for  our  elegant  illustrated  cata- 
logue of  watches  and  clocks. 


Sent  postpaid  upon  receipt  of  price. 


ALLEN   SYLVESTER, 


DEALER    IN    FINE 


Watches,  Clocks,  Jewelry  &  Silverware, 

Charms,  Rings,  Emblems,  Pins,  Canes,  Etc  , 

AT   LESS  THAN  REGULAR  RETAIL  PRICES. 


We  desire  to  call  attention  to  our  method  of  doing  business, 
and  to  some  of  the  prices  of  the  articles  we  have  for  sale. 

1st.  We  carry  no  goods  in  stock,  but  purchase  direct  from 
the  manufacturer,  insuring  new  and  perfect  goods,  and  latest 
styles  in  every  case. 

2d.  We  buy  and  sell  only  for  cash,  and  as  our  expenses  are 
light,  are  thus  enabled  to  quote  lower  prices  than  the  regular 
dealers  for  the  same  qualitj'  of  goods. 

3d.  We  deliver  all  goods  free  of  expense  to  our  customers, 
thus  doing  away  with  express  and  mail  charges. 

4th.  We  will  purchase  anything  desired,  and  on  such  arti- 
cles as  pianos,  bicycles,  sewing  machines,  etc.,  we  can  save 
purchasers  a  considerable  amount  of  money. 

Our  handsomely  illustrated  Catalogue  of  nearly  100  pages, 
will  be  sent  to  any  one  requesting  same  upon  receipt  of  10  cents 
to  cover  expense  of  mailing. 


FOR  FURTHER  PARTICULARS  ADDRESS 

ALLEN    SYLVESTER, 

BOSTON. 


ALLEN  SYLVESTER,   BOSTON,    .V.-l  .<?.«.,    U.S.A. 


Watches,  Clocks,  Etc. 


Reduced  size,  nickel-plated  case,  stem  wind  and  set,  price  .*2.25  complete. 

We  strongly  advise  purchasing  the  best  watch  one's 
means  will  allow.  The  best  is  most  satisfactory  in  the  end. 

In  the  purchase  of  the  higher  grades  of  Watches  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  specify  the  movements  (or  works)  and  cases  separate- 
ly ;  by  this  method,  a  person  can  select  a  tine  movement  in  either 
a  high-priced  or  a  low  priced  case,  or  a  low-priced -movement 
in  either  a  high-priced  or  a  low-priced  case. 

We  can  supply  Waltham  movements  in  prices  ranging  from 
$55.00  to  $4.50,  and  Elgin  movements  from  $93.00  to  $4.50. 

We  can  furnish  a  very  heavy  solid  14-K  gold  case,  for  $62.00, 
(regular  price,  $83.00),  also  lighter  weight  cases,  gold  rilled 
cases  and  solid  silver  cases  at  correspondingly  low  prices. 

We  can  supply  any  quality  or  style  of  clock  desired, 
whether  of  elegant  onyx,  or  enameled  iron  or  wood,  calendar 
clocks  in  great  variety,  and  the  common  round  nickel  clocks 
either  with  or  without  alarm. 


All  goods  delivered  fi'^e  upon  receipt  f>f  price. 


ALLEX  SYLVESTER,  HOSTON,  MASS.,    U.S.A. 


Rings,  Charms,  Pins,  Etc, 


WEDDING  RINGS,    Solid    H-K   Gold 
Half- Hound  King,  weight  about  5  dwt. 
Regular  price,  $8.00.    Our  price,  $6.75. 
Cheaper  rings  as  low  as  $]  .50. 


SOCIETY  KINGS,  Knights-Templar 
Ring,  black  Onyx,  4  rose  diamonds, 
Regular  price,  $12.50.  Our  price, 
10.50. 


CHARMS,  Royal  Arch  Chapter  Charm, 
White  Onyx,  $3.00. 

We  have  Charms  for  many  leading 
Secret  Societies  and  other  purposes, 
varying  in  price  from  $30.00  to  75c. 


PINS,  we  have  a  large  variety  of  or- 
namental pins, —  Bicycle,  Wishbone, 
Sword,  Dog,  etc. 

We  have  a  solid  Gold  "Owl"  pin 
with  diamond  eyes  that  we  sell  for 
$5.75  that  is  very  cute,  and  other  kinds 
as  low  as  50  cents. 


BROOCHES,   Ladies    Imitation    Dia- 
mond Brooch,  $2  25. 


Send  10  cents  for  Complete  Catalogue. 


ALLE\'  SYLVESTER,  BOSTOX,  .V.l.S.*.,   U.S.A. 


Silverware. 


Triple  plate  Sugar  Bowl,  Satin  Engraved,  $3.50. 

We  can  supply  you  anything  in  the  lines  of  Silverware : 
Ice  Pitchers,  Tea  Sets,  Plated  Knives,  Forks,  Spoons,  Toilet 
Articles,  Children's  Muss,  etc.,  etc.  Get  our  prices  before  pur- 
chasing elsewhere. 

There  are  cheap  silvered  goods  ottered  for  sale  by  some 
parties;  these  are  never  satisfactory.  We  handle  only  reliable, 
goods. 

Remember  that  we  can  sell  you  anything,  and  that  we  deliv- 
er all  our  goods  free  of  expense  to  the  purchaser. 

Send  10  cents  for  our  illustrated  Catalogue  and  Price-List. 


All  our  goods  warranted  exactly  as  represented. 


OF   THE 


I  UNIVERSITY) 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  icnmediate  recall. 


T?EC*D 
iWt 


VBNov'SOMM 


BEG  1 8  1960 


1961 


KB 


. 


REC'D  LD 


